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Asymetrix ToolBook File | 1995-08-15 | 18MB | 197,753 lines

CDBSE&File &Open... Ctrl+O &Save Ctrl+S Save &As... saveas &Import... import &Export... export Print Set&up... printsetup &Print Pages... Ctrl+P printpages Prin&t Report... printreport Send &Mail... sendmail &Run... E&xit Alt+F4 &Edit &Undo Ctrl+Z Cu&t Ctrl+X &Copy Ctrl+C &Paste Ctrl+V paste C&lear Del clear Select &All Shift+F9 selectall Select Pa&ge Shift+F12 selectpage &Size to Page F11 sizetopage F&ind... F5 Re&place... replace Aut&hor F3 author &Text &Character... F6 character &Paragraph... F7 paragraph &Regular Ctrl+Space regular &Bold Ctrl+B &Italic Ctrl+I italic &Underline Ctrl+U underline Stri&keout Ctrl+K strikeout Superscrip&t/Subscript superscriptSubscript &Normal Script normalscript Su&bscript Ctrl+L subscript Su&perscript Ctrl+Shift+L superscript &Show Hotwords F9 showhotwords &Page &Next Alt+Right &Previous Alt+Left previous &First Alt+Up first &Last Alt+Down &Back Shift+F2 &History... Ctrl+F2 history N&ew Page Ctrl+N newpage &Help &Contents F1 contents Status &Bar F12 statusbar selectedTextLines textfromPoint( toGo = J"SeeLink" xHere = toHere = ( /2)) * 2 #>= 4) .<= 72) toBook = "nature.tbk" T>= 76) `<= 104) 0earth. |>= 108) <= 196) Yliving. >= 200) <= 250) human. >= 254) <= 300) world. >= 304) <= 356) tech. >= 360) <= 454) HISTORY.TBK" >= 458) <= 496) Religion. >= 500) <= 564) arts. >= 568) <= 598) music. >= 602) <= 654) languag. < 10) x = "00" & < 100) x = "0" & toPage = "p" & x & "-1" selectedTextLines textfromPoint( toGo = J"SeeLink" xHere = toHere = ( /2)) * 2 #>= 4) .<= 72) toBook = "nature.tbk" T>= 76) `<= 104) 0earth. |>= 108) <= 196) Yliving. >= 200) <= 250) human. >= 254) <= 300) world. >= 304) <= 356) tech. >= 360) <= 454) HISTORY.TBK" >= 458) <= 496) Religion. >= 500) <= 564) arts. >= 568) <= 598) music. >= 602) <= 654) languag. x = < 10) x = "00" & < 100) x = "0" & toPage = "p" & x & "-1" Reader Author createCDMediaPath linkDLL "tb30DOS. STRING getCDDriveList() FileOnlyList( allCDDrives = cdDrive = checkCDDrive(allCDrives) -- "The CD required -- & " program. Place the CD-ROM "\ -- & "drive now click OK."\ -- f"OK" "QUIT" -- -- It = " -- -- i = 3 "Unable locate CD,"\ & "exiting" <> -1 & ":\help;"\ & ":\animatio;" & & ":\videos;"\ & ":\ \nasa;" & & ":\ '\wtn" & ":\ currDrive = getFileOnlyList( )& ":\ \*.mov","","") c"004-4" enterApplication "Show Buttons over map" Text c"Options" "Wayzata World Factbook Help" "About False = True "tbkmm.sbk" tbkmmInitializeSystem c"Go" c"Page" c"Edit" separator 1 "Open" "Send Mail" "Run" "Save" As" "Import" "Export" "Select "Replace" "Size c"Go" "Main" c"Go" "Go Back" c"Go" c"Go" "Gallery" c"Go" "Encyclopedia" c"Go" "Explorer" c"Go" "Languages" c"Go" "Credits" c"Go" "Search Results" c"Go" SearchResults 4holdMatchList, holdGoList 4searchString path = "HitList" defaultPage d& "hitlist.tbk") > = " : " & close : " & must be performed "Finder" 8"explorer. J"Caption" = 0 " = 0 J"SeeAlso" = 0 '"Outline" sendtoBack WTINextPage xNum = hereNum = "x3" 8"encyclop. WTInextPage WTIPreviousPage "x3" GoBack WTIGoBack WTIHelp WTIQuit WTIPrintText cNumber = = " & printReport WTIPrintImage '"Picture" B"CopyImage" '"Arrows" B"ArrowBack" B"ArrowForward" = " & WTICopyImage WTIMain 8"main. WTIGallery WTIEncyclopedia WTIExplorer WTILanguages sysLoackScreen = WTICredits WTIgoToSpread xPage & "1" nPage sysLockscrren = WTIgoToSubSection nCard = >= 1) #<= 14) xCard = "x3a" C>= 15) O<= 26) f>= 27) r<= 73) >= 74) <= 119) >= 120) <= 140) >= 141) <= 160) f" >= 161) <= 176) -- answer " yet..." WTIgoToSection "x3" to handl Encyclopedia .&+ +E .&+ +E encyclop.tbk WTIEncyclopedia WTIExplorer Explorer .&+ +E .&+ +E Explorer.tbk WTIExplorer %!WTILanguages Languages .&+ +E .&+ +E False Languages of the World sysLoackScreen Language.tbk Languages WTILanguages WTICredits Credits .&+ +E .&+ +E Credits.tbk WTICredits .&+ +E .&+ +E False nPage xPage sysLockscrren WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E xCard encyclop.tbk WTIgoToSubSection .&+ +E .&+ +E encyclop.tbk WTIgoToSection selectedTextLines textfromPoint( toGo = J"SeeLink" xHere = toHere = ( /2)) * 2 #>= 4) .<= 72) toBook = "nature.tbk" T>= 76) `<= 104) 0earth. |>= 108) <= 196) Yliving. >= 200) <= 250) human. >= 254) <= 300) world. >= 304) <= 356) tech. >= 360) <= 454) HISTORY.TBK" >= 458) <= 496) Religion. >= 500) <= 564) arts. >= 568) <= 598) music. >= 602) <= 654) languag. < 10) x = "00" & < 100) x = "0" & toPage = "p" & x & "-1" selectedTextLines textfromPoint( toGo = J"SeeLink" xHere = toHere = ( /2)) * 2 #>= 4) .<= 72) toBook = "nature.tbk" T>= 76) `<= 104) 0earth. |>= 108) <= 196) Yliving. >= 200) <= 250) human. >= 254) <= 300) world. >= 304) <= 356) tech. >= 360) <= 454) HISTORY.TBK" >= 458) <= 496) Religion. >= 500) <= 564) arts. >= 568) <= 598) music. >= 602) <= 654) languag. x = < 10) x = "00" & < 100) x = "0" & toPage = "p" & x & "-1" Reader Author createCDMediaPath linkDLL "tb30DOS. STRING getCDDriveList() FileOnlyList( allCDDrives = cdDrive = checkCDDrive(allCDrives) -- "The CD required -- & " program. Place the CD-ROM "\ -- & "drive now click OK."\ -- f"OK" "QUIT" -- -- It = " -- -- i = 3 "Unable locate CD,"\ & "exiting" <> -1 & ":\help;"\ & ":\animatio;" & & ":\videos;"\ & ":\ \nasa;" & & ":\ '\wtn" & ":\ currDrive = getFileOnlyList( )& ":\ \*.mov","","") c"004-4" enterApplication "Show Buttons over map" Text c"Options" "Wayzata World Factbook Help" "About False = True "tbkmm.sbk" tbkmmInitializeSystem c"Go" c"Page" c"Edit" separator 1 "Open" "Send Mail" "Run" "Save" As" "Import" "Export" "Select "Replace" "Size c"Go" "Main" c"Go" "Go Back" c"Go" c"Go" "Gallery" c"Go" "Encyclopedia" c"Go" "Explorer" c"Go" "Languages" c"Go" "Credits" c"Go" "Search Results" c"Go" SearchResults 4holdMatchList, holdGoList 4searchString path = "HitList" defaultPage d& "hitlist.tbk") > = " : " & close : " & must be performed "Finder" 8"explorer. J"Caption" = 0 " = 0 J"SeeAlso" = 0 '"Outline" sendtoBack WTINextPage xNum = hereNum = "x3" 8"encyclop. WTInextPage WTIPreviousPage "x3" GoBack WTIGoBack WTIHelp WTIQuit WTIPrintText cNumber = = " & printReport WTIPrintImage '"Picture" B"CopyImage" '"Arrows" B"ArrowBack" B"ArrowForward" = " & WTICopyImage WTIMain 8"main. WTIGallery WTIEncyclopedia WTIExplorer WTILanguages sysLoackScreen = WTICredits WTIgoToSpread xPage & "1" nPage sysLockscrren = WTIgoToSubSection nCard = >= 1) #<= 14) xCard = "x3a" C>= 15) O<= 26) f>= 27) r<= 73) >= 74) <= 119) >= 120) <= 140) >= 141) <= 160) f" >= 161) <= 176) -- answer " yet..." WTIgoToSection "x3" 080-1 082-3 088-5 090-5 102-4 154-2 162-4 192-2 232-1 238-4 240-4 244-2 246-4 250-4 260-5 266-2 268-1 284-4 288-2 290-2 294-2 298-4 300-4 304-6 314-2 322-3 332-4 336-4 350-6 352-5 356-7 360-4 362-2 366-3 390-2 420-2 426-2 430-5 444-1 446-2 450-1 454-1 466-2 468-3 472-2 476-1 478-1 296-3 004-2 010-2 012-2 012-3 014-5 014-6 018-2 018-4 020-4 020-5 028-10 086-5 102-5 104-3 242-2 306-1 348-1 350-1 390-5 164-5 172-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\080-1.mov 080-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\082-3.mov 082-3 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\088-5.mov 088-5 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\090-5.mov 090-5 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\102-4.mov 102-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\154-2.mov 154-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\162-4.mov 162-4 wtn\164-5.mov wtn\172-1.mov D:\VIDEOS\WTN\192-2.mov 192-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\232-1.mov 232-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\238-4.mov 238-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\240-4.mov 240-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\244-2.mov 244-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\246-4.mov 246-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\250-4.mov 250-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\260-5.mov 260-5 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\266-2.mov 266-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\268-1.mov 268-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\284-4.mov 284-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\288-2.mov 288-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\290-2.mov 290-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\294-2.mov 294-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\298-4.mov 298-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\300-4.mov 300-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\304-6.mov 304-6 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\314-2.mov 314-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\322-3.mov 322-3 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\332-4.mov 332-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\336-4.mov 336-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\350-6.mov 350-6 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\352-5.mov 352-5 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\356-7.mov 356-7 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\360-4.mov 360-4 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\362-2.mov 362-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\366-3.mov 366-3 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\390-2.mov 390-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\420-2.mov 420-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\426-2.mov 426-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\430-5.mov 430-5 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\444-1.mov 444-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\446-2.mov 446-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\450-1.mov 450-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\454-1.mov 454-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\466-2.mov 466-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\468-3.mov 468-3 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\472-2.mov 472-2 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\476-1.mov 476-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\478-1.MOV 478-1 D:\VIDEOS\WTN\296-3.mov 296-3 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\004-2.mov 004-2 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\010-2.mov 010-2 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\012-2.mov 012-2 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\012-3.mov 012-3 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\014-5.mov 014-5 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\014-6.mov 014-6 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\018-2.mov 018-2 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\018-4.mov 018-4 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\020-4.mov 020-4 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\020-5.mov 020-5 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\028-10.mov 028-10 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\086-5.mov 086-5 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\102-5.mov 102-5 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\104-3.mov 104-3 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\242-2.mov 242-2 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\306-1.mov 306-1 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\348-1.mov 348-1 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\350-1.mov 350-1 E:\VIDEOS\NASA\390-5.MOV 390-5 <BookPath> :HDMEDIAPATH System New York New York New York New York Times New Roman Times New Roman Times New Roman Times New Roman New York Roman New York Roman C:\NEWGNS\LIVING.SST Times New Roman :CDMEDIAPATH Tms Rmn C:\NEWGNS\LIVING.SST Tms Rmn W:\help;W:\animatio;W:\videos;W:\videos\nasa;W:\videos\wtn Palatino LIVING NG.SST \videos\nasa;W:\videos\wtn Palatino LIVING NG.SST ftsSetFile ftsIndexName W:\animatio;W:\videos;W:\videos\nasa;W:\videos\wtn C:\NEWGNS\LIVING.SST W:\help;W:\animatio;W:\videos;W:\videos\nasa;W:\videos\wtn Languages Languages of the World Book "LANGUAGE.TBK" openWindow openWindow Animation HitList Search Results : ge id 6 of Book "C:\NEWGNS\WTN.TBK" p108-1 !J,J,Z#Z# ftsTitleOverride The Classification of Life (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A classification of mammals, based on molecular evidence (amino-acid data). Evidence is inconclusive as to (i) whether the cetaceans share an ancestor with artiodactyis, perissodacytls or both; (ii) whether the primates are more closely related to rodents or to lagomorphis, or are equally closely related to both. Molecular data separates tree shrews from primates, whereas morphological data puts them together. The Classification of Life (1 of 2) The study of biological classification, or taxonomy, aims to provide a rational framework in which to organize our knowledge of the great diversity of living and extinct organisms. Today comparative biology seeks to understand the living world by searching for the underlying order that exists in nature. The foundation of comparative biology as well as the first well-authenticated system of classification goes back to Aristotle (384-322 BC), who believed that members of a species share a common essence and could be grouped together on that basis. However, it was not until the 17th century that the Englishman John Ray (1628-1705) proposed the first natural classification - an arrangement based on presumed relationships, rather than an artificial scheme aiming merely to facilitate correct identification of species. In the 18th century the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707-78) produced a rational system of classification based on patterns of similarity between different organisms. Linnaeus developed one of the first comprehensive subordinated schemes of taxonomy - a scheme that places each organism in a group that is itself part of a larger group. The Linnaean system The essential feature of Linnaeus's scheme is that it is binomial. He gave every distinct type or species of organism (e.g. the lion) a two-part (binomial) name (e.g. Felis leo) in which the second element identified the individual species, while the first element placed the species in a particular genus - a group comprising all those species that showed obvious similarities with one another. For in stance, he grouped together all cat-like animals in the genus Felis : Felis leo - the lion; Felis tigris - the tiger; Felis pardus - the leopard; and so on. Having thus subordinated each species to a particular genus, he went on to place groups of genera in a higher rank or category called a family, then families in orders, and so on through classes, phyla (or divisions, for plants) and finally kingdoms. Within this hierarchy, each successive rank is thus more embracing than the last, each containing a greater number of organisms with fewer characteristics in common. Although Linnaeus's genera and families were for the most part natural, his higher ranks were of necessity artificial in order to deal with the vast numbers of new organisms being discovered. Linnaeus used his highest taxonomic rank (kingdom) to separate plants and animals, but it is now clear that this simple subdivision is untenable, because certain groups such as archaebacteria and fungi fit into neither category. Nevertheless, the binomial system has remained unchanged to this day and every newly discovered organism is given a Latin or Latinized binomial name. Another difficulty with the Linnaean system is that it is too simplistic to reflect the complexity of classification that is implied by Darwin's theory of evolution. Since it is generally believed that every organism on this planet has arisen through a unique historical process of descent with modification, it follows that all of them should fall into uncontradicted patterns of groups within groups. Thus, although we shall go on using such terms as family, order and class, we will need to introduce additional ranks as the analysis of the pattern of life is further elucidated. For example, the classification of living organisms illustrated opposite has at least 24 major branching points or divisions, each of which would need to be assigned a separate hierarchical category - 12 of them higher, or more embracing, than that of class. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANT AND ANIMAL GROUPS * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 11100109018U00109101111U0 090111 81U01-1 011--9 810910 01011010 0101010101010101101011100 10910101090 -10U-101010101011-Y 01--] 9U190 191U19109 01901911198 90191U090 -0---- ---0-- 0-0----- --0-- 0-0-0- ----0-- 0-0-0-- --0----0---0-- 0---- ---0-----0-0-0------- --0-- 0-0-- Y0-0- -0-0--- -0-0- -0-0-----0- 0---0- -----0-0- -0---0- -0-0-1----0-0- -0-0- -0-0- !t"D# &b'8( SeeLink SeeAlso textSize Caption textSize PrintText RWTIPrintText buttonClick buttonClick WTIPrintText PrintImage YWTIPrintImage buttonClick buttonClick WTIPrintImage CopyImage 'WTICopyImage buttonClick buttonClick WTICopyImage PreviousPage WTIPreviousPage buttonClick buttonClick WTIPreviousPage qDWTIMain buttonClick buttonClick WTIMain GoBack WTIGoBack buttonClick buttonClick WTIGoBack GWTIHelp buttonClick buttonClick WTIHelp Gallery WTIGallery buttonClick buttonClick WTIGallery Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Explorer WTIExplorer buttonClick buttonClick WTIExplorer ]WTIQuit buttonClick buttonClick WTIQuit NextPage WTINextPage buttonClick buttonClick WTINextPage Arrows ArrowBack WTIPreviousPage buttonClick buttonClick WTIPreviousPage ArrowForward WTINextPage buttonClick buttonClick WTINextPage A:A;@ 0101T1T1T1 0U0101T1T1 T10U0101T1 T1T10U0101 T1T1T1010U 0U0U01T101 0U0U0U01T1 010U0U0U01 p108-2 ftsTitleOverride The Classification of Life (page 2) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The Classification of Life (2 of 2) Modern classification systems The change from essentially artificial systems of classification, such as that used by Linnaeus, came about as taxonomists realized that there was a natural order underlying all living things; this order was furthermore provided with a theoretical background by Darwin in 1859. Today's taxonomist endeavors to provide the most natural classification possible by the use of one of the following systems: Phenetic classification aims to incorporate as much information as possible about organisms, and then groups them together on the basis of their overall similarity. All characteristics are given equal weight and no account is taken of the evolutionary relationships of the groups. This approach is amenable to numerical analysis (numerical taxonomy) and may be useful for large groups of simple organisms such as bacteria. Orthodox (or phylogenetic) classification provides the basis for most text-book classifications. The system is based on presumed evolutionary relationships, and - as with phenetics - as much information as possible is taken into account. Organisms are grouped by features they share in common and that seem to reflect their common ancestry. Cladistics is generally believed to be the most precise and natural method of classification, and is used by most progressive taxonomists. The only groups formally recognized are clades, each clade being defined by features that are shared by all its members and that are found in members of no other group. These groups may be represented on a branching diagram or cladogram (such as the diagrams shown here), which shows how particular organisms are grouped together and how the various clades form a hierarchical distribution of groups within groups. In evolutionary terms, a clade is a monophyletic group - a group consisting of species descended from a single ancestor and including all the most recent common ancestors of all its members. Thus cladograms can literally be seen as evolutionary trees. However, cladistics may or may not consider the evolutionary history of the organisms concerned. The evidence used to classify organisms has for the most part been morphological, i.e. derived from the study of structural features such as bones and teeth. Physiological evidence is also employed but is of limited use. Embryological evidence, on the other hand, is of greater importance, since the developmental stages of an embryo may mirror the evolutionary progression by which a species has reached its present form. More recently, molecular evidence has proved to be of paramount importance in solving the more difficult problems of phylogenetic relationship. This kind of evidence has been provided by new techniques such as DNA hybridization (by which DNA from different sources can be compared), and sequence analysis of proteins. The analysis of amino-acid sequences in proteins such as cytochrome C and the sequencing of RNA itself give us a means of comparing the very genotypes of different organisms, and hence provide us with the number of nucleotide substitutions in the DNA of the genes. The result is a new and more comprehensive means of comparing the different forms of life on Earth. THE CLASSIFICATION OF MAN Rank Distinguishing features Kingdom Animalia Nervous system Subkingdom Metazoa Multicellular Phylum Chordata Notochord (central nerve cord) Subphylum Vertebrata Backbone (protecting notochord) Super-Division Division Superclass Tetrapoda Pentadactyl (five-digit) limbs Class Mammalia Hair, sweat and milk glands Subclass Eutheria Placenta Order Primates Fingers with sensitive pads and nails Family Hominidae Upright posture, flat face, large brain Genus Homo Bipedality, manual dexterity Species sapiens Double-curved spine Subspecies sapiens Well-developed chinn * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANT AND ANIMAL GROUPS * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Phylogenetic classification '&'&'&''&' &'&''&'&'& '&'&'&''&' &&'&'& ,,+,, &&''& ''&''& &''&'&'& &'&'&''&'& '&''&''&'' ''&''&''& &'&'&''& &''&'& ''&'&'&&'' &''&'&''& ' '&''& &&'&& - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , &'&'&'' &&''& &''&''& &&'&&'&, &&''& &'&'&'& &''&'&' '&&''&' **++* &'&'&''& &'&''& &'&''&''& &''&'& '&''& &'&&'&'&'' &'&''&'& &''&''& &''&& -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ''&'& &'&'&& &'&''& ,&''& &''&' &''&& -K'-Q'Q -'&'-K- &''&''& &-K-'Q'-Q &''&''& &'&'& &''&''&'& &'&''& &''&''&''& &'&'& -4-4- -4- 3-- --4- 4-- - 4-4- - --4-4-- 4-- 4, 4-4-4 4-4- 4-4 4-4-4- 4 4-4-4 -4-4 4-- 4, 4-4-4 4-4- 4-4 4-4-4- 4 4-4-4-4 4-4-4 -- --4-4 4-4-- --4 -4-- --4-4 -- --4-4 4-4- -4 4 -4-4, Q-'&''& &&'&' '&''-''& &'Q'-'& -'-'& &'&'&'& &'&'& &'&'&'& '&''& &'&'&''& &''&''&'& &'&''&''&' '&''& &&''&& &&''& V,VV, &&''K-'&- '&'-''&-K- K''&'& &''K-'&'Q' -'&'Q-''&' Q''-'Q''&- ,''-& -Q'&''-Q &''&''& &&''& ,&'', &&'&& &''& ' '&&'&'&'&& '&'&' &&''& ''&''& &&''& ''&''& '&&'&'&'&& ''&&' ''&'& &''&''& ,,+,, ,,+,, ,,+,,+, ,,+,, Q'Q'&''&' ''&'& &&'&'&'&&' &&'&'&& 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 34343434 3434343433 434343434 3434343434 3434343434 3434343 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 4343434 3434343434 3434343434 343433 3434343434 3434343434 343433 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 34343433 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 34343 3434343434 3434343434 3434343434 43433 &''&''& &''&' &''&''& ,&&'&'&& ,&&''& &''&''& &'&''& &''&''&''& ''&'&'& &''&''&'& &''K-'&'- &''&''& -&''- ,,+,, ,,+,+, ,+,,+ &',&''& -K'&'' &&''& &''&''&''& '&''&'&'&& '&'&'&''& &''&&'&'&' &''&& ''&'&'&' &'&'& Q'&&'&''& :3:3:3: 3:3:3:3^3: 3:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:3 ::4:4 4:4::42 4:4::42 4:4::42 4:43:3:3:3 :3:3:3:3:3 :3:3:3:3:3 ::4:, '&''&&'' '-'-&&'&'' &'&'' '&'&'&&''& '&&'&& &''&' &''&'& &''&'&''& &'&'& 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4 4:4:4 ]4:4^ 4:4:4 4:4:4 3:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4 4:4:4 4:4:43::4: 4:4:4:4: 4:4:4^4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 3:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4^4: 43::4:] 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4^4:4:43 ::4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4 ]4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: ::4:] &'&'& &'&'& '&''& ,'&&, ,&&'',&''& &''&'&'&, '&'&& &''&''& &'&''& &'&'& '&''& -''&'&'& &'&''-''& ''&'&&''-& '&&''&&''& &'&''&& '-&'&''& ]4:3:3:3: 3^3:3^3:3^ 3:3^3:3^3: W:4949494 9494949494 9494949494 9494] 3:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:] 4:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:] 4:3:3:3:3: 3:3:3:3:3: 3:3^3:3^3: 3^3:3^3:3: 4:3:3:3: 3:3^3:3^3: 3^3:3^3:3^ 3:3^3:3^3: 3^3:3^3: :494949494 9494949494 9494949X94 9X9494] &''&''& ''&&''&''& &'&'& &''&'& &''&''& -''-'Q''- -'-''- ,+,+, &''&'&'& &'&''& &''&''&'' -'Q%' &&'&' ''&'&'&''& '&''&'&&'' &'&'& &&'&' ]4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4^4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4^4:4:4: 4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4^4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4^4:4: ]4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:4: 4:4:4:4:] 4:4:] &''&''& &'&&'&'' '&'&''&&'' &&'&''&&' '&''&''&'' &''&'& &''&'& &''&''& &'&'&'& &'&'&'&''& '&''&'& &'&'&''& &''-K''- @dd@d@d@d] @dd@d@dd@d @d@d@d] @dd@d@dd@ @dd@dd@ @d@dd@dd@ @dd@d@dd@^ d@dd] &&'&&, '&''&& &&''& &'&''& &''&''& '&'&&'&'&' &''&'' &''&''& @dd@d@dd@d @dd@d@ @dd@d@ @dd@dd@dd ]@dd@d@dd@ dd@d@dd@dd @d@dd@dd@d @dd@dd@^ &&''&' ,&&'&' --'-&&''&& &''&''& &&''&& &'&'& &&'&' '&''& &&'&& '&'&& &'&'&''& &''&''&''& ,+,1,+ ,+,1, '&''&&'&'' '&'&'& &''&''& &''&''& &&''& &''& ' &''&''& '&''& &''&'&''& &''&''&''& &''&''&''& &&'&' ''&&''&& ''&'&&'&&' ''&-Q'Q '&&'-K-- &''Q'-K'& ''-'Q-''& &''&''& ''&&''&&' '&&'' &''&''&''& '&''& &''&''& &''&''&'&' +2+,+2+ +2+,+ 2+,+2+ '&'&''&' &'&'&'&''& '&'&'&''&' &''&''& ''&''& &&'&'& ,'&&, &''&''& &'&'& &'&'& K''-K K''-K''-K &--Q' &&''& &'&''&''& ' &&'&& &''&'&'& ''&'' &&''&'& ''&'&'&'&' '&'&'&'&'' &''&'&'&'& ''&''&'&'' &'&'&'&'&' '&''&'&'& &&'&'&' '&''&''&'& '&'&''&''& ''&&'&''&& '&''&'&''& '&''&''&'& '&'&''&'' p110-1 ftsTitleOverride The Beginnings of Life (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Stromatolite structures on the coast of Western Australia. These structures are composed of the remains of numerous cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and may be as much as 2900 million years old. Although these are some of the oldest organic remains to have survived, traces of bacteria have been found in rocks some 900 million years older. The Beginnings of Life (1 of 5) Around every star in the universe - of which the Sun is but one - there is a zone, the ecosphere, where water could potentially exist as a liquid. Water is the prime requisite for life as we know it. If there is a body of sufficient mass in this zone (i.e. a planet), with a sufficient gravitational force to hold onto water and a gaseous atmosphere, then the conditions for life may be present. The nature of the original conditions on the Earth can be worked out by considering our neighboring planets, Venus and Mars, together with the gases that erupt from volcanoes. The major gases produced by volcanoes are carbon dioxide and water vapor - the principal components of the oceans and atmospheres. On Venus it is too hot for water to be liquid, on Mars too cold - but on the Earth it is just right. Other simple compounds such as ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) are known to be able to combine with carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). This will happen if they are subjected to ultraviolet light (as emitted by the Sun) and if an electrical spark (such as might be provided by lightning) is passed through a mixture of these gases. From such reactions are formed simple amino acids. These are the building blocks of proteins - the essential components of living things. The problem of joining up amino acids involves the removal of a molecule of water, but this seems to be achieved under conditions of dry heat - again associated with periods of volcanic activity. Protein Protein may be in the form of enzymes, which act as catalysts in various biochemical reactions, or it may take the form of structural materials. Proteins are chains of amino acids, and there is an almost infinite variety of forms that can be synthesized from the 20 different amino acids. The functioning of a protein depends on the way the chain is folded. * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANTS * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM * THE BIOSPHERE * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1,-01-1-1T 0--0-0 1U1-- ]-T11 Q1U1- 2,-1(- 1-1--0-1P1 1-0-, 1-01- M,-11 T,T1- U1TU0Q Q(P-L 9P1UU^TU1 p,QpU t1-101-T Q(Q,PMP Q(-0t1 y11y- PUt,yPM U1,1y 11U110 P)x,L-L PUP$t $,-,,t 1U1--1y 1-T-10 yx-M,$y 1x11U U1y^11 $PQ,t 1z11x1 110U- xPP,P y1x1P 1y-T1- ,M,$Ty,u H,yxT$ UTyUxU ,MTQ( 0$,yTyH U0y1y1 Uu0y$U yUYy1 UyUUTyy1yU TxQx, LTuTH U11y1 -,1x] $1t)t -UyU]UUY x$QPQ T1,yP- P,y(Q( 1y11x 0UTU0 y-0y-xU Q-,T--, xPQxTQ 1x1UU y]Q\yy1U UUy1x yUy10Uy]y 1T]yUx 1y1U1 y]y]y 1y1xZy]y 0yUyU y1yy\ 1Uyy]y9 TU]y1y ,MTQxU T10UU L,1T1t1x y]U1y 1-1T1 11y]yU y11xzU y]UUx1P UU]Y1y] TU,yUxP yT,1yTU UT1y1y]yU -xP)T0 ,-10QUTU y9QUU] Uy]Yy UYyx] UYy]U]y Ty1yT y-x,x Uy]yU yy\yUY1 Uy]yU UYUU1Y T-TUyT y1U11 PU-11yy0 UyTy1y] y1U1V]x UU\yyU y9y]z0y -U]yy UxP(t ]y^xU 11TU0 -y0yUx1yy] Ux]yy -\U1xy] U01U1P 11T-x1y1 T11U-UTy U0U1TU8- -1TUU t0UQ4 T1U01y]y]y y]Yy0y UU]1UU 1T1T11T11x yy]U]y 1Ty]UU ,1T11x1 UU]10 0T1y-U 0y1UU Uy]UU T1-U1 1yTUU qP,M$ -1T1U TUUT1 U0UUT1 (UTu1T 1UY0U1]U9y ]1U11U UQ]t1 ]xU]y y1U1U ]1U1y0 ]L91:P L-,10yU YUYy1U-0U0 9U0U1y TuTyTt-, U1Q1x L,-t, $y,y, 1T1,1 -0-1T1 T1U-1- --x-1P 011T-0110T PMUyT (yU$UP)t PUyTt yPUt1- UyPQ(tMy yPxPT L,UPU tUPUt ,UPTQ UxxQL, P1xP- $]TQU Txu(xU,,P- u,(xQU0 qTyUPU -,P)y p,MT$y, TtUP( x-p-x$,P 0U10- ,My,UP T0T1-0U 1-11UU ]11T11T1 \uy,0U, P-y0y QU0y1T1x 11U-] 901U1 ]U1]1 PU,y$ QTU,P (P,y$9x, UtyUPM Ux9PL $,T,- 0T11xU0 -xTQTU,- 11T1x 11y11 Hy,x-L \1U1Ty10y Tux-u$ UH,Hx x-x--xU$ yxU,11P0Uu x-P-P P1t1yP 0QyTU, y1y1]Ux- QTQTUy UTy-xTyx L1]U1 U1-U19y1 ,U,)T- Uxy1U- Uxu]y, UUYUy 11PUyT UU]1U LUU-1 1yUyy P1yUx0 MTQ0Q 1-u]yUQT 1yUU- 101)xy- -x11y0z2xU 1^1V- UUy1y1 1--UU ,Qy,y1 U11--01y y-U1U1xU 10U-11-Y 1-,:p11 ]~y]y ,1y1P1 :^19y y1YUU -10yy 11U-- U]Uy- Vy$UQ- 1,UU- 1]_19 2:2V: ^:bV2 :^2:2 VV^c2 :^2V:^ bz2V: ^V:V: 2^VV: V:^:_2 :^V^: :_22z p110-2 ftsTitleOverride The Beginnings of Life (page 2) ftsTitle Viruses, the most basic forms of life, simply consist of a protein coat protecting a strand of DNA. They can only reproduce inside the living cells of other organisms, and the cells are destroyed in the process. This is why viruses cause diseases. The Beginnings of Life (2 of 5) Viruses One of the fundamental aspects of living things is their ability to replicate themselves and pass on instructions to make new individuals from one generation to another. These instructions are contained in a special, complex molecule known as deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, which is made up of various organic compounds. DNA has the capacity to replicate itself, and acts as a blueprint for making amino acids, and hence proteins. The most basic forms of life, the viruses, simply consist of a protein coat protecting a strand of DNA. Viruses are so small (on average about 100 millionths of a millimeter long) that they can only be seen with an electron microscope. Viruses can only reproduce within the cells of other organisms. In this way viruses cause many diseases, from the common cold to AIDS. * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANTS * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM * THE BIOSPHERE * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Viruses **++* p110-3 ftsTitleOverride The Beginnings of Life (page 3) ftsTitle A bacterial cell: typical structure The Beginnings of Life (3 of 5) Bacteria Because viruses are parasitic upon more complex organisms, it is unlikely that they were the first forms of life, even though they are the simplest. The first evidence of life on Earth comes from minute globules preserved in rocks 3800 million years old. These are believed to be the fossils of primitive bacteria. Bacteria each consist of a single cell - the smallest biological unit able to function independently. The largest bacteria are only a few thousandths of a millimeter long. A typical bacterial cell consists of a cell wall, within which is contained the protoplasm (a jelly-like substance) and strings of DNA. A single bacterium reproduces by splitting into two new cells, each one an exact copy of the original. This process can happen as often as once every 15 minutes. The first bacteria were probably heterotrophic, i.e. they fed on the organic molecules that were so abundant in the early oceans. As the 'organic soup' was used up, new types of bacteria evolved, the autotrophs. Some autotrophs are capable of synthesizing their food from inorganic material, while others use light energy, but not in a way that produces oxygen. Such bacteria are described as anaerobic (without air). About 2900 million years ago a new type of bacteria - known as cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae) - evolved. These bacteria had the ability to use light to photosynthesize. The waste product of photosynthesis is oxygen, and oxygen began to accumulate in the ocean waters and in the atmosphere. Whereas oxygen had previously been a poison for all living things it was now exploited by new kinds of bacteria (described as aerobic) as a fuel for burning food to obtain energy. Like the most primitive bacteria, these bacteria were heterotrophic, and from them evolved all the higher animals. From the autotrophic bacteria evolved the plants, all of which use photosynthesis. In this way, animals and plants share a common ancestry. Over the millennia great numbers of specialized bacteria have evolved, some of which survive in even the most adverse conditions of heat and cold. Bacteria play a crucial role in the carbon and nitrogen cycles, and are important in animal digestion. They have also been exploited in various industrial processes such as fermentation and cheese-making. Certain bacteria cause specific diseases, ranging from acne to salmonella to tetanus. * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANTS * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM * THE BIOSPHERE * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread p110-4 ftsTitleOverride The Beginnings of Life (page 4) ftsTitle Structure of a typical eukaryote cell (i.e. a cell with a nucleus), as found in protists and in all higher plants and animals. Note that plants and plant-like protists also have a cellulose cell wall in addition to a cell membrane. The diagram also shows the similarity between certain organelles of the cell and certain bacteria, indicating how such cells may have evolved. The Beginnings of Life (4 of 5) Protoctists One of the most remarkable events in the history of life on Earth took place about 1500 million years ago. Suddenly the microscopic organisms - although still single-celled - became many times larger than the bacteria that preceded them. This event marked the origin of the protoctists (formerly known as Protists), some of which are plant-like and others animal-like (the latter also being known as protozoans). The smallest protoctists are one or two thousandths of a millimeter long, while the largest, the amoeba, are about 1 mm in length. As with viruses and bacteria, some protoctists can cause disease. The protoctists and all later, more advanced forms of life - fungi, plants and animals - are known as eukaryotes (meaning 'true kernel'). This is because the protoplasm in their cells is differentiated into the cytoplasm and the nucleus (the 'kernel'). The nucleus is a separate part of the cell, surrounded by the cytoplasm, and contains the chromosomes, the structures into which the DNA is organized. In contrast to bacteria, the cells of protoctists also contain miniature organs, or organelles, which perform specialized tasks. Organelles One of the most important organelles is the mitochondrion, which contains enzymes that break up organic compounds to release energy. The mitochondrion has its own DNA, which is passed on from generation to generation. It also has special structures (ribosomes) for the synthesis of proteins. In fact mitochondria are basically similar to soil bacteria, and indeed there is an amoeba, Pelomyxa, which does not have any mitochondria at all, but instead contains symbiotic bacteria exactly like those found in soil. Perhaps even more remarkable is the fact that in plant-like protoctists and in plants the organelles that are responsible for photosynthesis also have their own DNA and are hardly distinguishable from blue-green algae. Even more surprising is the detailed structure of the centrioles (which organize cell division) and the flagella and cilia (which are concerned with movement) - all these organelles have an internal strengthening of nine miniature tubes that are indistinguishable from the internal parts of the swimming spirochaete bacteria. These observations have been explained by proposing that the basic protist single- celled organisms were formed as the result of the cooperative coming together of separate organisms. If this was indeed the case, then one of the most important events in the evolution of life was not the consequence of competition but rather of cooperation. * EVOLUTION * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PLANTS * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM * THE BIOSPHERE * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread d@ejk A_ee::2/ :;::;;: AeA_:,- :_;;:44 4:;;ee 399^9^9^]9 ]9]3939393 3939393293 99^]^9^ ]939392393 2323232232 Ae3 9]d^c^9^:] W9]3939329 32332323 322322 9^d@^9^9^ ]939939232 33223223 9^9^99]9]3 93939W9332 923232232 3;;4: 2-2-+. :^d^]^:]^9 ]9^3939]39 3932923232 AeA;A;:33 99^d^:]:]^ 3939239233 :_A;4:4 99^d:^9]: ]99]9]399 9329323 :;:;:;:; 9d^:]^]9^] 99]3939923 9232322322 33:;eA eeAA_Ae;_; ]99?e 99^9^]:^9^ 993]393933 932323223 d?@?@d 299^@^^]:] 9]99W 3833929232 32323 9]:]:]9]39 9393938323 2?@?@dFF 3:]^d] :]:]993939 3232322323 ^9^]:9]9d ,2,22,2, ^d^d^9^^9e 4;;e3 9d^d^]@^ AA@@9 @22,22 99@?@d@ 9^d:^ 9?9@d@ 9d^^dd d@@d@ 99^^@de 239@@ 9^dd^k d?@?d :ddee hc99bb8 9edek 29dde :^-,-,-,-, -,-,-,-,-, -,-,-,-,-, -,-,-,-,-, -,-,-,-,-, -,-,-,-,-, -,-,-, 8?@@dFk 29?@@j ,2,,2 ,33]3]939 3A;;3 d99?@@dF e^],8 d@@jFk :ddkk 99332 Ae_eA_3 :93929 ,2,22 3:;;44 +2?@@dF W938323232 A;;:4 :;:;4 :e, 4 99^W993 2,2,2, ]33938 28289 eded92 3eeAeA;4 ;4:44 9^]:]9]3 9933232 289eded eded2 9?@dk 9:]:]9]939 99ded@]@c9 @9932M 99d]^^ 9^399@2 ]cddc9] 19988 c?bcb ,@eAe;:4 d^^@9^]9 289dd:? 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The Beginnings of Life (5 of 5) Sponges The first sign of cells coming together to form large organisms is in the sponges, a group of marine organisms that first evolved at least 570 million years ago. Sponges may grow up to 1 m (3 ft) across, and their structure is supported by skeletal spicules, or (as in the case of bath sponges) by a network of fibers. Within a sponge there are several types of cell, each of which is capable of functioning independently. Some of the specialized cells are in fact indistinguishable from certain protozoans. If living sponges are disintegrated, the individual cells are capable of coming together to re-form the original colony anew. The beginnings of sex The next major breakthrough in the evolution of life came with the development of sex - the exchange of genetic material between two individual organisms. It was this exchange that provided the level of variation upon which natural selection could act. It is possible that sex may have originated in the engulfing of one organism by another in a kind of cannibalism. An engorged organism with double the genetic material would then divide in two to relieve itself. In time an alternating pattern of single and double units of genetic material would succeed each other, until the situation was reached where the norm would be for the double system. In this system the splitting into a single unit only occurred in the production of the sex cells or gametes, which would then come from different parents to combine to form a new individual and so restore the now normal double system. 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tLlPp,p$l,HPH$P P$H$,$$ P(,H, Pt(,HPl,p$ ,l,l,LP P(,LH,H,, t,Lt(, Pplxl lttlPltPtLtltlPLlt HPLHP ,L$($,(P,$H,P0, ,tpll, tHHPH,HPl, P(0l,H,H,$H PPL,p ltl,l,pP HPltp, ,lH,$,$T lPllltlH H$H,L$$$$ Ht,lP ,H$tH,L$t ,lPlHP ,l,lHH,lPpH,lPpHt( PH,p,l,L,pPpP ltpHP tlPplxltLlt tLHltp lt(t$ P$,H,p, ,p,l,$P$$,P H$$$0P( ltllP pPt$P PLHPL HlPH,l P$PLt ltt(ltLll t(l,$PlPLH L$,LPHHPL tlPpl,llTlP PpHPLl,lPP(P(,$ PHHPHPt HPpl,l,p,p t,p,t,$ ,p,lPl tlltltl PHt,ltlpPpt Pl,L$0 Pl,p,l( ,L,(P, lllPt PlPt(tH PLPtLlPL P$,$,L$,$,$$ $PLPH,lHt tPHt(lt tllPp PlPlHt( $,H,l,L THTlt ,llPp lPtHlP t(H,H P(PPH,tHtHPH tHt(lPpP(lPlPl,P tPl,l,l PH,pHlt tLlltlt lPpPpl LlttHPp ,lPtl,l,l tHPH, ,lHtH $,P$,L$,T ,PPLPtlt t(ttHtL ,l,lPLP HPLH,pPl tl,p,l,lPLP tLPltlPLH, $$,H,Ht Pltltp$tplPHPplP Pltp, PH,ptPHt,lPH,HH, PTtpHtplH,LPltPp Plxlt LlPlPplPtptllt PLtp,PH tt(P(Ht(H,l,l,L$,$,H 0$Ppl PLtlPLP $$tH,(tH lPlT$Pl tpHPt( Pplllt ,l,($, PxPPTtL lPlPpHxlPLHPH $$,HTHPpHPHPLP,pHt ,H,H,l,L PLHtL ,ltllPpl tl,lt lxltL xPtxPt ltHPpHPlx tPptlxltTlP ,(tPl,H tLt(lPlPL$PLPH,$ LHPPH lxlttlxltPl tLtPptl ,H,LH,H Pl,l,t(lT t(t,L, HPHPpTx tlHltLlt PL$t( Pp,L,LHP$ tltlPL,t(l,p,P,L$ $Ht,LPHT pPH,lPH0PHPl,p,p$t(t,pPtLPlHPLl,p tPltHP PltpPp, tLt,ptTtp P(,tllPl0t PtLlt tPLllLtH,pHPHl, PH,($,H t(t,l,lPL P(PLHPH PL,,L H$,$H (lxltpPtLltHx,l H0t(P,L$ H,p,lHPL tLPLl ltlHPtLPPHl,l Pxltl,p,tPlPHPP ,lPL,P$,t lPpPPLH t,tLPLP P(HtPp,t(t t,HPtLt PLHPL ,pPt(P,PLPl,lPl Pt(tlPpPt ttLtLt PltpPtp, lxltLt pPptLltPt,l,lt tLt(l, PLPHP tLPLPLP tlP(,t LPPLPPPLT,L,P,L l,(P,,P ,lHt,lt tt(t, 0t(t,pPptLt xPtLP( pPpttl,p PPLPLP(HP( tltltPl0 PLHP(P tLtltL tltPLlt H,,(HPt tLtl, PLHPtLtHt(tp Ht(t(lPpt,LP PLtPHT tHlxlttLx llPLttt tPpPHPPx tLt,l,l,p,tLtt(t,t(t(PL,Pp, tLl,(tL HP,(P($ t,(,p tLH,L PLPPtlP lTltLtpHll pttLt PH(P(tPxPxPpP P,(Py0, PptPt(P H,LH0P(t t0tlPpPLPxPLP H,TPPlPLP Pp,tPpltpHt 0tPplPp tpPptPp,pPx tpxlPltpPlTtl0HPlHPLTPltLH,p,p0t,, (PLPlt PPptl,p,PLtL ,(tp,P,Lt,L ,L,H,P(P ,TxlxPpTlxltlPltltLP,p,t,(PL $,$tLt0tplPP t(tLltt(tltL,t(l tH0tltLt( tlpt,(l tlttL ,t(tP LlPl,lt,HPptx,pP tLPLP,(,L P(tPxP PlxtLtLP(P, $$t,(t,lt(,p tHt(H,ltp,t(t,pt,l,pPt(tPl,p,PpPpPPpPt xt,pttpPtp lxt,x PtLt,plPPP ,lPt(t, tLPPL,t(t,P(l P,ltpPttLt,ptltL,TtptP(,t(l,,(t,p,L,PLt, ,Pp,, 0TPxtx PtLlPltPptPLPT (HtPPl,pPl,pPPtp,ttLlPP(tt(PP tLPPP ttLPtPpPP PlxlPpPxtLt, pltt,t tPLPTPLTPlPtpHPplt(,t(t ,,LTPxxl t,HxPt(tPLPPPLPPtLP,pHPpPPPLlPpHtLtLPl tPp,p,ptPpPlTltp, ,xtLttLP ,p0xP tLt(tPptltptPL,p,tLt0HPLtLP(,P(P ,,pPpx Px,tLPtt(, Pp,p,pPPL,tPL,t(l,P ,,L,L, TtTl, t(ttPltTPLtPL PpPptPLPLtp0t(t(t,pPpPx ttpPltLxl PptPPPllxPLT xt,plPP(t,PPp H,H,H,p,tLPP(t,pPl,p,tLtLP(PLtL,p, xl,L,t(tPPLPPPpPt,ltPLPLPtxtPpl tPttL ,t(tp,p,t(x LltLPPptTtLtPpPtl,p x,p0H tpttL tPpPttLPPLPLPL,(ttPt(P,p,T ,TTt0tP p,ltPpPPpPptLlPltp,p,Pp,tLl,lPP tPp,tLtlPp, PlttLt tlttPlLtPtpPt(t(t,L LPPLP, PLP,pPpt,p PPLPPTp,t(t,t,lPxt,LtPp 0t,pPtLPtLt,LTPpl0 (tpPt(Pl tTx,x, tLtpPtPpPPl$PTP tLtlxt Lt,pP ,p,tpPpP,LP ,x,0P (xPtL ,TltLtLtt,p0t,pPtt(PPtpPp0PLPPL,,p,P( ,P(tPtpPLPplPtxPtpt,pPlt LPPLtPp,tLtPpPPplxtLP0t(P( ,pxPtptLPPp,P(, ,,(P(P,p0t,p tptTPLxt,pPpPpt,pt t(t(tptPpl,p,t P(t,pPpPtpPtL,PPpxtxPp lttxLt PpHxPtpPLP, tptLttlxl,ptPptPptPp,tLt,p,,p,pP( pPLPPLt,p0l0t(x,tPpt,p0t,L,P(, P(tp,pP tLPLPltt,pPt(ttpPtL,t(tLt,tx tpt,P0 PpPxPt PpTtltPpPp PpPxPt,(t,p,P L0t,L,P, t,LtPxPL,0tLt,x,tLPP(tpPt(,ptPlPpPtpt0,pttt(,ttptUxlPpHLtP PtPpx xPP(PP,(,\P PpPltLtP xPtLPPpPPPLPP(,PLPPL,P, tlxlTttpPPLtt,p,ptLx,ptLt,,pPP ,PPL,,ltPpxPx ptPt0tpPLPtp tLtPLttp,,PLtpPTPPLP( ,LPtLtH,$P(H, LtPptLPH,H, P(P$PLlP Pltll (P(P(, (PLP(P(P (PH,,(P(P,L,tL LtLtLt(PL,M 1xtl,pP PxPxPp0P0 TtQpQ luPHtl tIllll $$$QPHl$lP uQl,P HHHPlQH$P $t$HPl HlPlH$$tll p112-1 ftsTitleOverride Evolution (page 1) ftsTitle Charles Darwin, the British naturalist whose theory of natural selection provided an explanation of how evolution works. Evolution (1 of 4) Until the late 18th century it was generally accepted that the living world was the result of a single more-or-less instantaneous creation as outlined in the Bible. However, the discovery of giant bones in Ohio and also in Europe led a Frenchman, Baron Georges Cuvier (1779-1832), to demonstrate that many species preserved as fossils no longer existed - they had become extinct. By the beginning of the 19th century it was acknowledged by many thinkers that there had been worlds before man. Furthermore, it was recognized that the history of life, as recorded by fossils in the geological sequence, portrayed a pattern of change through time. The idea of the evolution or transformation of species was born. The main issue of contention for many scientists was not whether change had taken place but rather concerned the nature of change itself. There were two contrasting views on the nature of change. The view held by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was that change was gradual. The opposing view was held by Cuvier himself, who believed he detected a pattern of successive catastrophes and sudden replacements. The mechanism of change that Lamarck suggested in 1809 was that organisms during their lifetime develop structures that better enable them to adapt to their environment, and that they pass on these characteristics to their offspring. According to his scheme, the giraffe developed its long neck from its habit of browsing on tall trees. Charles Darwin At odds with Lamarck's ideas on the inheritance of acquired characteristics was the theory of evolutionary change proposed by the British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-82). Darwin first developed his ideas on a voyage round the world as ship's naturalist on HMS Beagle in 1831-36, but he did not outline his theory until 1858, when he presented a paper jointly with Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913). He then expanded his theory the following year in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Predictably, Darwin's theory gave rise to bitter controversy, contradicting as it did the Bible's account of creation. Eventually, however, with the support of such eminent biologists as T. H. Huxley (1825-95), Darwin's theories be came widely accepted. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture yxTyxU ]yUyUy1yT TUT1U Ty0yy ]yyUTU ]xy1x1TU 11,U110 Q1x1y U1UTUUT TU-T1T y0y1T Uy1x] Uy1TU U0yyU Uy0U] ]yy01U] ]yTyUy] Uy1yU1 TU1U0y110 yy]Q10U- y0U0Q10y10 UyTU] y]y1P1U,U] yyTy1T UU1UT ]U0U1T Uyx1y010U x1x1T 1TUy]x yyUy0Q0 10yUy0y,1 UxyUxU-1T- 1UUTUy -yy]y Uxy0UT- YUxUx ]y0Ux U0Q0U0-,U1 Uy1x1 TU,y] 0uUT1Q0U-U 0Q011U1 UU0U1y Uy0U,10Q U1P11U 0yyU0y 1U0-U,U1 0U0QU 1y0-Q0Q0 1yTUx ]x1xUU0 U0y1y 1U0Q1U y0UYy] ]y1xyU TUTUT yUTy1yy1T1 Ux1U, U1yUy xUU0U0-xU yy1TU Uy1yT-TUy UTUU1 UyUx]yyTy 1U1101UU U]UU] TU0U-0 0yUTU UU,U- yUxyyUyTU Uy101 UT1y] 011T1U] UxUT1 y10y1U10UU 1U,U-T 1T1y1 x1P11T 1Uyx1T1 ]y1P11P1 UUy0u1P1x U0-0Q0 1T1UY -U,1U1T y]yTU yxUxUUy 1P1T1- UyUyT yy]y]yxU Q1,U11,1T 1T1x1 Uxy1Q0UU xUUTU1x11U yTy0y1xy 1T1UTU0U0U Uy]yT yx1x1U] yUTUUTy1 y1xUx yUU]y y,UUx1 yUy1x Ux1yTyx y0yUT UyUUTy1yU y1x1QUyy] 1yUx1 10UTy1TUy1 yTyUUTUx UyU0y UxUUTUU ]yTUUy0-U0 11y1y1x 1UTyUxUyy1 T1yT] U0UTQ 0y1UU0y1T y1xU0110y ]yUTUyU11T 0y0y01Q0U UUy]T1t 1y1U010U0 yTUTyTy11T UQ01U]y y1U10 UUy1T1y11x y01T1x1TUU yTUxyTy1T1 y0y]TU T-1U1y1y1y ]y]y]y0y1P 4U,y0yy0U1 Tyy1y1x10 UT-UU yUyyUx1T-1 y0y0y 1x]UU UxyTy1TUU0 y]yy1T UUyUT UQ0y-10Q0 Uy]yy y0y1TU1y9 Uy0y0UTU11 TyyUy0 11,U1y0U TUTU,U, U0T11 TUyUxyUQ1 1yUU11,U Q0U]y UTUUy UxUUT1TU yTyTU,U,U1 UUxUy yUTUy1] P1,U] Ux-x1Y 0y-x10Q11y UUTU1Q0 yUy1x1TU] ]yx10Q UyUyTUTyU UT1UU T1QU1 Uy1}]U0yUU yy1yy1010U 1T-UU 1T1x] Y0-TY UU]U1U ]y1U1y 1x101 U1P1y 0U1U1 TU1T1] ]TUU]U0U1 1-0-1P11 ]yy10 9T11, U0Q01 10U-0U10- U0UU-0U1T1 101U,,U-T1 01yU\Q1 y1x-1,U y0yU0 T-1T-1] Ux11U -TU0U,1 x11T] T]y-U,U-T1 x1P1y Uy1x1x 1y0y01y0-U 1T10QU -TUy1T1] 1y0Q1T1 ]U1x1U1 UU0y0 Q\y-11 1y]y1 ]UTU0 U5y01 1y0U0y 1y1x] UU0U1 ]U]y] y1-1P1 ]1TUx1y 9y1y]U UTUU0 UT1UT Ux1U,U 0yUxUT1 1yUxUT1 xUT10 p112-2 ftsTitleOverride Evolution (page 2) ftsTitle The forelimbs of five different animals, showing that the pentadactyl (five-digit) limb is common to them all. Such basically similar structures are described as homologous, and the existence of homologous structures in different organisms suggest that they have all evolved from a common ancestor. Evolution (2 of 4) Natural selection When Darwin embarked on his voyage round the world, like most of his contemporaries he believed in the fixity of species. It was his observations on the pampas of Patagonia that gave rise to his first doubts. Darwin noted that the extinct mammals whose fossilized remains he discovered were clearly directly related to forms still living. When he visited the Galapagos Islands, the British governor pointed out that he could identify the islands to which the giant tortoises belonged from the different patterns on their shells. This was the critical clue that led Darwin to realize that from a common stock a species could change. Like many of his colleagues Darwin was well aware that the fossil record revealed a history of change - albeit on a broad canvas. Darwin's genius was to suggest a mechanism by means of which such observed changes could have come about. It was a common observation of natural history that more eggs were laid and more offspring produced than ever reached breeding age. Darwin was also familiar with the weeding out of unfavorable strains by animal and plant breeders. However, what Darwin concluded was that in the natural world such weeding out was accomplished without direct intervention by man - the selection was natural. Individual organisms fortuitously better adapted to their environment than others of their species stood a better chance of surviving, and so of passing on their 'desirable' characteristics to the next generation. This process has been called 'the survival of the fittest'. In this way, in the course of numerous generations, new species may arise. A classic example of natural selection is seen in the peppered moth. Usually about 2% of these normally pale moths are black, but, as they are conspicuous, the birds easily see them and eat them. During the 19th century, industrial towns became heavily polluted with soot, so that all the trees and buildings were blackened. In these conditions the black variety of moth was effectively camouflaged and the proportion of black moths rose to 98% of the population. With the introduction of legislation against air pollution the proportion of black moths began to decline. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -12U-1 1-1-- V22V2Y2 11Y22V V2Y211 V22Y2 VY2Y2V V22Y22Y22 0122V V22V2-Y 01-322 -122V 0122V V22V22Y V22Y2 V22Y- -Y1-2V V22Y-- V2211 22Y1-0- -32Y- -122Y V2211 22V22 V22Y1 22V22 V22Y- V22-Y U22V22 V22Y- 1V221 V2Y11 Y11-0 V22Y1 VY121 V212- V22Y21- 11V21 V22Y1 122Y- 1122V --2210 VY-01 2V22Y 122Y1 -2V22 122V22Y2 21-11-1-1- 22V2Y2 22V22 22V22 Y22V2Y12 V22Y20 ]1122 01-Y22V -1-11 -22V22Y -Y22V -1--1--1 2Y22V 1212U --1--1121- -122Y -221- 2122Y V22Y- 2Y1121 -Y2-- 12Y2V V22Y2Y 22V22 1322VY 22323 22V2Y- Y22Y1 Y211Y 0122V V22Y2 -Y22V -12Y-1 -1221Y V2Y1M -122V 122V2 12V2Y1- 22V2112 -122V -1221 V21-- V2-1f V22V221 VY22V 2V322W2 p112-3 ftsTitleOverride Evolution (page 3) ftsTitle Two ostriches (right) and two rheas (left). Although the ostrich comes from Africa and the rhea from South America, both are flightless, with reduced wings, long necks and a flat breastbone. These similarities suggest that they have a common ancestor, although they are sufficiently different to suggest that they evolved in different ways once the continents separated. Evolution (3 of 4) Mutation One of the great problems of the theory of natural selection is that it does not explain how new changes arise in the first instance. However, once the function of the DNA molecule in inheritance was established, it was discovered that it was very common for an accidental change to occur when DNA replicates itself. Such changes (known as mutations) usually have little effect, but in some instances the altered DNA gives rise to protein whose functioning is severely disrupted. Fortunately most mutations have no effect, but in some cases they are harmful to the individual. However, mutations can also lead to desirable characteristics that enable the individual to survive more effectively than others of its species: examples include the coloration of the peppered moth, and new types of mosquito that are resistant to DDT. Indeed, all present species have probably inherited a whole host of mutations that have occurred among their ancestors. Mutations can also be used to determine how closely different species may be related. By examining the sequence of amino acids along certain protein chains and comparing them, it is possible to decide which species are closely or distantly related. An evolutionary tree can then be constructed based upon these molecular similarities. The speed of evolution If the unit of selection is the individual then the nature of evolutionary change must of necessity be gradual. The characteristics of the population of a species will be modified as the generations succeed one another. This phyletic gradualism contrasts with the alternative view, which sees the species as a whole as the unit of selection, i.e. the fittest species survive, while less well-adapted species become extinct. In this case change can be sudden (precipitated, for example, by climatic changes) and the evolutionary process would appear as a series of jumps or saltations. In 1972 it was claimed that the fossil record revealed a pattern of periods of little change (equilibrium), interspersed with rapid change. The term punctuated equilibrium was coined to de scribe the inferred process. Since then a furious debate has taken place between the protagonists. This has had the effect of stimulating a great deal of new research on the fossil record, which appears to have resolved the controversy. The currently accepted theory is known as punctuated gradualism. Evolutionary change is gradual, but at certain specified times the slow tempo of evolutionary change is punctuated by a fairly rapid speeding up. However, this is still achieved by the normal process (as described by Darwin) of selection of individuals. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1119U1 U9U1U11]]U8U9]1U9111 11U9U99 11111 1U1]1] 1y1UUy1y1y]yy1U1xUy1UUUU yY1yy]y UyUUy1yUYU y1yyUyy UyyUy yUyyy Uyy1yU Uyy1y }UyUy 1yUyUU1y UyU1UUUUyUyyUyyyUy]yU yUUUy yy11yy1U11QU y]yUyyy1 9-099]8U1]1 0=]]] -119-9U 1]]]1-0 91U9- 0]10U0U1 89T9]]199U1]] 901]1 1]11]111U1191 1y1UUU11UUUUUU1 U1UUU11U1y UUyUUU 1y1]y y}UyU Uy]yy y1xyU U1-y1UUUUyUy1y U11y]U1Ty yUUY1y yy]yU Uyy1y U9U19- 9UY1]1 9]191 11]11]- 1]111U91 U19T1U0U9-] 1-91U1 11199 ]1]-9-0 }y1xUU1y11U1UUUUYU1y1UUU-UUU1U UUyyUUU yyy]yU yUy1y1 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11111U9119 _ c _ _ _ _ _ c _ _ _ ^ _ ^ c_ c _ _ _ ^ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ _ _ ^ 1-111 ]]19]9 ]9111- a]919 9U115U1111]9U9 1]]]9]1]9 99U10 111U9U99 ]1U19 11U1]9U 1U1]111109 9U1U19U111 -919U9U9U _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ ^ _ ^ 111-11--1 91U11 1]1]1019]a ,11]9 9U91U9]99] 9U19U9Y91U8U9]]]91 1]11111U9U19 ^ _ _ _^ _ ^ _ _ c c^ c ^ ^ _ _ c ^ c _ c _ _ _ c _ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ _ --11] 11-111-1U91 11]99U9 991U10U19U9 1]99U19 9U91U911T11U] ]U9]U1T91U9e 11]1119\9 9]]19 ]11U191U199 ^ ^ _ _ ^ _ _ c c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ c ^ _ _ _ _ _ ^ --11- 111-1U ,111111- 1]1-1] 111]19 ]1]11U ]99]9 9119U19 1U1]9U111U9 ]9119U9 ]591] 9U1]Y9199U9 1919U9 9U91] ^ __ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ -1-111111U1111111-111 --11- 111-91 U19U111T9 U9U0U9 ]10U9 1U999 91]19U19T9] 519]19 ^ _ _ ^ ^ _ _ _ [ _ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ c^ c _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ ^ _ ^ _ 11U1-- U111U 111-- 119]]]111]9U9]9U1U9]a ]]9]9 9]9]9 9]9]9 ]]1]1]9 ]]1]1]]]9 ]]9]]]9 9U1]]]1]1]1]]]1U9U1\9 5]1]9 ]]]]9 ^ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ _ _ ^ ^ ^ p112-4 ftsTitleOverride Evolution (page 4) ftsTitle One piece of evidence that humans and monkeys had a common ancestor is the existence in humans of the coccyx - the bone at the base of the spine. The coccyx is the remains of a tail, and is an example of a vestigial structure, i.e. one that no longer functions. In very rare cases humans are actually born with an enlarge stump of a tail. Another example of a vestigial structure is the pair of 'claws' about two thirds of the way down the bodies of certain snakes, which indicates that the ancestors of the snakes may have had hind legs like other reptiles. Evolution (4 of 4) Competition versus cooperation One of the major controversies regarding evolution arose out of the idea that the theory of evolution might apply to human society. In 1888 T.H. Huxley claimed that 'the survival of the fittest' epitomized modern capitalist society. The idea that individual endeavor was the key to success fitted neatly with the notion that selection of the individual was the driving force of evolution. In contrast, Prince Petr Kropotkin (1842-1921), the Russian geographer, geologist and anarchist, insisted that a fundamental trait within a species was mutual cooperation. The features that organisms shared were considered to be of greater significance than individual differences. By the 1980s the century-old controversy over the relative importance of cooperation and competition seemed to have been resolved. This has been settled by the application of games theory, which seems to have established that for success over generations, selection will favor those individuals with a cooperative nature. As has long been realized in our own species and indeed in our individual personalities, there is an ever-present mixture of both selfish and altruistic traits. It is this inner conflict that provides the driving force of evolution. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * GENETICS AND INHERITANCE * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread p114-1 j%L&$' ftsTitleOverride Genetics and Inheritance (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the basic genetic material of most living organisms. Although a large and apparently complex molecule, the structure of DNA is in fact astonishingly simple. A single DNA molecule consists of two separate strands wound around each other to form a double-helical (spiral) structure. Each strand is made up of a combination of just four chemical components known as nucleotides, all of which have the same basic composition: each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose) linked to a phosphate group to form the helical backbone; different nucleotides are distinguished only by the identity of the nitrogen-based unit (called a nucleotide base) bonded to the sugar molecule. The four bases - adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T) - lie in the central region of the double helix, with each base linked by hydrogen bonds to a specific complementary base on the partner strand: A pairs only with T, and G only with C. This simple structure explains the two key properties of DNA - how it codes for the manufacture of amino acids (from which proteins are formed) and its capacity to replicate itself. Each combination of three bases (known as a triplet or a codon) within a DNA molecule codes for a particular amino acid, while the specific pairing of bases explains how two identical DNA molecules can be produced by the separation of the two strands of the parent molecule. Genetics and Inheritance (1 of 3) Although theories of inheritance or heredity were put forward at least as early as the 5th and 4th centuries BC, genetics - the scientific study of inheritance - only truly began in the 18th and 19th centuries. Observations were made of how specific characteristics of plants and animals were passed from one generation to the next, to provide a rational basis for the improvement of crop plants and livestock. The most significant breakthrough in genetics was made by the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel (1822-84). He observed specific features of the pea plant and counted the number of individuals in which each characteristic appeared through several generations. By concentrating on just a few features and determining what proportion of each generation received them, he was able to demonstrate specific patterns of inheritance. The discrete nature and independent segregation of genetic characteristics that he observed became known as Mendel's laws of inheritance, and have been shown to apply to most genetic systems. By the start of the 20th century it was clear that organisms inherited characteristics by the reassortment and redistribution of many apparently independent factors, but the identity of the material that carried this information was unknown. To code for such a large amount of information, any type of molecule would have to be highly variable, and proteins were thought to be the most likely candidate. In 1944, however, the American microbiologist Oswald T. Avery (1877-1955) demonstrated that the inheritable characteristics of a certain bacterium could be altered by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) taken up from outside the cell. To understand how genetic information was encoded required the structure of DNA to be determined. In 1953 the American James Watson (1928- ) and the Englishman Francis Crick (1916- ) reported that DNA is a large molecule in the shape of a double helix . The genetic code is contained in the sequence of paired nucleotide bases that lie in the central region of the molecule, with each triplet (or codon) of bases specifying a particular amino acid. The complementary pairing of bases on each of the two strands also explains how DNA replication can take place Incorrect pairing disrupts the structure of the DNA molecule and may be a source of mutation, but is usually recognized and changed by an enzyme correction system. Genes, the genome and mutation Mendel discovered that characteristics are passed from generation to generation in the form of discrete units. Once the structure of DNA was established, these units, called genes, could be understood at the molecular level. A gene is a linear section of a DNA molecule that includes all the information for the structure of a particular protein or ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule. The sum of all an organism's genetic information is called its genome. A mutation occurs when there is a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases in a piece of DNA. Such changes may occur naturally, as bases are added, deleted or exchanged. The rate at which this process (known as mutagenesis) takes place may be accelerated by exposure to chemicals or radiation, and mutations may disrupt or prevent the production of proteins, thus disturbing the functioning of the organism as a whole. However, natural mutations passed on from generation to generation may also confer benefits, and are indeed essential to the process of evolution. Every sequence of nucleotide bases that makes up a single gene is called an allele. There are usually several different alleles available for each gene. Thus, if the eye color of a given organism is dependent on a single gene, different eye colors will be dictated by various alleles of the gene responsible. Reading of genes and protein synthesis The first stage in the process by which cells use genetic information stored in DNA is to make an RNA copy of a gene. This is called gene transcription. Most of the RNA copies (known as messenger RNA or mRNA) travel from the nucleus of the cell (where the genes are located) to the ribosomes - particles in the cytoplasm - where proteins are manufactured or synthesized. Ribosomes make proteins by joining together amino acids in the sequence dictated by the order of triplet groups in the mRNA. Proteins may become part of the cell structure or they may be enzymes, which catalyze biochemical reactions. * NATURAL COMPOUNDS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * PLANTS * FARMING * FOOD PROCESSING * NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES * CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread ,--,--,- &3R3Q. p114-2 ftsTitleOverride Genetics and Inheritance (page 2) ftsTitle The simplicity of Mendel's laws is illustrated by a single-factor inheritance, in which an inheritable characteristic is determined by the action of a pair of dominant and recessive alleles of a single gene. The coloration of rats is an example of such a characteristic, with the allele for black being dominant over the allele for white. If a homozygous black rat (i.e. with two identical alleles) mates with a homozygous white rate, all the offspring will be heterozygous black - each similar in appearance to the black parent, but with a recessive (and unexpressed) white allele. However, mating between these offspring will result (potentially) in a mixture of black and white rats. The ratio of black rats to white will be on average 3 to 1, any white rat having inherited one recessive white allele from each of its parents. The same pattern is found in the inheritance of certain human characteristics, including recessive genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia. The inheritance of characteristics dependent on a number of different genes is more complex, but the underlying principle is the same in all genetic interactions. Genetics and Inheritance (2 of 3) Chromosomes A chromosome consists of several different types of protein tightly associated with a single DNA molecule, and each chromosome carries a large number of genes. Most eukaryotic organisms (organisms with cell nucleuses) have several chromosomes, but bacteria, which do not have a nucleus, have only one. All the cells of a particular organism have the same number of different chromosomes, but numbers vary widely between different species. There is no clear pattern to this, but plants tend to have fewer different chromosomes than animals. Humans have 23 different chromosomes per cell, but there are two copies of each (called homologous chromosomes), making 46 altogether. DNA replication and cell division As organisms grow, their body cells divide and multiply. By the time a cell divides, its DNA will have doubled by a process called DNA replication. The hydrogen bonds linking the two strands of a DNA molecule break apart, and each strand uses nucleotides present in the nucleus to synthesize a new strand complementary to itself; the result is that two daughter molecules are produced, each identical to the parent molecule. This process is completed just before cells divide, so that each chromosome contains two DNA molecules instead of the usual one. A mechanism called mitosis operates during cell division to ensure that each of the daughter cells receives one of the DNA molecules from every chromosome. Most organisms are diploid - like humans, they have two copies of each different chromosome in normal body cells. However, sex cells or gametes (sperm and egg cells in most organisms) are haploid - they contain only one of each chromosome. Sex cells are produced from body cells by a process called meiosis. DNA replication takes place as before mitosis, but an extra stage of chromosome separation results in four sex cells being produced from a single body cell. As sex cells fuse at fertilization, a single diploid cell (called a zygote) is created, with the full complement of chromosomes. Sex chromosomes and recombination In humans, one of the pairs of chromosomes - the sex chromosomes - is responsible for determining the sex of an individual, and can have two different forms, X and Y Females have a pair made up of two X chromosomes, while a male has an X and a Y. Thus the sex cells of a female always carry an X chromosome, while a male's sex cells may contain either an X or a Y. The sex of a child is therefore determined by the type of chromosome passed on by the father. A similar form of sexual determination is found in most sexually differentiated animals. In organisms with several different chromosomes, the offspring receive some chromosomes from each parent and so a combination of genes different from either. Genetic diversity is further in creased by a process known as crossing-over: during meiosis, homologous chromosomes can exchange bits of DNA between themselves, and so move genes into new combinations. However, the closer together genes are on the same chromosome, the more likely it is that they will be inherited together. Sexual interaction therefore greatly accelerates the rate at which genes are moved into new and potentially beneficial combinations; as such it is crucial to the evolutionary development of species. * NATURAL COMPOUNDS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * PLANTS * FARMING * FOOD PROCESSING * NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES * CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread -3^+V _^V*F $$++% p114-3 ftsTitleOverride Genetics and Inheritance (page 3) ftsTitle The simplicity of Mendel's laws is illustrated by a single-factor inheritance, in which an inheritable characteristic is determined by the action of a pair of dominant and recessive alleles of a single gene. The coloration of rats is an example of such a characteristic, with the allele for black being dominant over the allele for white. If a homozygous black rat (i.e. with two identical alleles) mates with a homozygous white rate, all the offspring will be heterozygous black - each similar in appearance to the black parent, but with a recessive (and unexpressed) white allele. However, mating between these offspring will result (potentially) in a mixture of black and white rats. The ratio of black rats to white will be on average 3 to 1, any white rat having inherited one recessive white allele from each of its parents. The same pattern is found in the inheritance of certain human characteristics, including recessive genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle-cell anemia. The inheritance of characteristics dependent on a number of different genes is more complex, but the underlying principle is the same in all genetic interactions. Genetics and Inheritance (3 of 3) Dominant and recessive genes In diploid organisms there are two copies of every gene, one in each member of every chromosome pair (the only exception being the sex chomosomes of the male). When both copies of a particular gene have identical alleles, the individual is said to be homozygous for that gene. However, many genes will have different alleles in each copy and the individual is said to be heterozygous for such genes. One allele may be dominant in that the gene product it codes for is used by the cell in preference to that of the other allele, which is called recessive. The outcome of such interactions between the alleles of all the different genes produces the characteristics of an individual, known collectively as the phenotype. The entire set of alleles in the genome of an individual is known as its genotype. Molecular genetics and the future The basis of genetic engineering is the use of certain bacterial enzymes that can cut DNA into small fragments. These fragments can be joined together in almost any combination, using a range of other enzymes. This can be done with DNA from any source - for example, human genes can be put into bacterial DNA. Bacteria are easy to grow in large quantities and can make useful products if they contain suitable genes. So human insulin, for example - the hormone that is deficient in diabetics - can be produced from genetically engineered bacteria. Except in the case of identical twins, everybody's DNA is significantly different from every other person's. For this reason, the forensic technique known as genetic fingerprinting is becoming increasingly important in the identification of criminals. The chance of a wrong identification of a suspect's DNA and DNA extracted from blood or other body tissue found at the scene of the crime are hundreds of millions to one against. Genetic-engineering techniques can also be used to determine the exact sequence of nucleotide bases in short stretches of DNA. Many genes from different organisms have been sequenced. For some organisms with small genomes (such as viruses), the entire genome sequence has been determined: the HIV I virus that causes AIDS is one example. A worldwide project to sequence the human genome has begun and will take about 30 years to complete. It will reveal the location of many genes and probably unexpected information about human genetic organization. This type of information is likely to allow gene-replacement therapy - the replacement of defective genes with normal copies, to be used in the 21st century to cure many inherited diseases. * NATURAL COMPOUNDS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * PLANTS * FARMING * FOOD PROCESSING * NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES * CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread XWXXW UYY5YY_ . 4_+V Y3.-- _W3W4,W $OPO$ O$OVO p116-1 ftsTitleOverride Plant Physiology (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A plant cell: typical structure. The protoplasm in plant and animal cells is differentiated into cytoplasm, the nucleus, and other bodies such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Plant Physiology (1 of 6) Like all living organisms, plants have to feed, breed and compete. Plants obtain the materials required for growth and development by converting simple inorganic chemicals in their environment - such as carbon dioxide, water and various mineral salts - into the complex organic substances of which they are made. This ability is unique to plants, algae and certain primitive organisms. Since they are fixed in one spot, plants have also developed special physiological systems of adaptation to their environment, and use environmental cues to regulate almost every facet of their activities - including growth, development and reproduction. How do plants grow? Plants grow by increasing the number and size of their cells. Unlike animals, where new cells are produced all over the body, new cells in plants are only produced in areas of specialized tissue called meristems. The primary growth - i.e. increase in length - of plants takes place in meristems situated at the tips of shoots and roots. These tips are called apices (singular: apex). At the apex of a shoot or root, new cells are produced by the form of cell division known as mitosis. Some of the new cells grow out of the stem apex and develop into leaves. Slightly behind the apex - in the portions of stem between the youngest leaves, or in the region beginning a few millimeters behind the root tip - the new cells begin to expand, and it is here that the biggest contribution to length increase is made. Initially the cells expand by taking up water; new protoplasm - the jelly-like substance in cells - is only made later. It is at this later stage that the cells begin to differentiate into specialized tissues with different functions. Before a cell can expand, the cell wall (consisting mostly of cellulose) must become stretchable. One factor which regulates this is a substance called auxin, one of several hormones that act as growth regulators in plants. Secondary growth, which involves growth in thickness or girth, occurs after a stem or root has grown in length. The meristem responsible for secondary growth is called the cambium, which in woody plants forms a ring of cells between the xylem and phloem. As the cambium cells divide, new xylem is formed on the inside of the cambium, and new phloem on the outside. Both xylem and phloem are found in all plants, and are types of vascular tissue (i.e. they are full of conducting cells) used to transport water and nutrients round the plant. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1--11 (yxyxx) --0-- ()01- @d@@d yx()x1- -(y(-xyx 11-11-11 -11-11-11- 1-1-11-11- 11-11-11-1 -1-11-11-1 1-11-11-1- 1-11-11-11 -1-11-11-- -1-1-11-1 1-11-11-11 -1-1-11-11 -11-11-11- 1-1-11-11- 11-11-11-1 -1-11-11-1 1-11-1-1-1 p116-2 ftsTitleOverride Plant Physiology (page 2) ftsTitle A tree trunk in cross-section, showing the main anatomical features. Plant Physiology (2 of 6) The material for growth During growth, the substance in a plant obviously increases enormously. Much of a plant's substance is water, but the 'dry' matter is synthesized (manufactured) by the plant from relatively simple, inorganic substances taken up from the soil and the air. The most abundant elements in plants are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbon and oxygen come from carbon dioxide in the air: using the energy of sunlight in the process of photosynthesis, the plant converts the carbon dioxide into organic substances, initially the carbohydrate glucose (a simple sugar), and then sucrose (the same chemical as household sugar). The hydrogen is derived from water. Nitrogen, a key element in proteins, is usually taken up from soil in the form of nitrates. The nitrates are converted into ammonia in the chloroplasts - miniature organs in the cells of leaves and stems. Using the glucose made in photosynthesis, the ammonia is then transformed into amino acids, from which proteins are assembled. The addition of artificial fertilizers containing nitrates will enhance plant growth. Legumes (peas, beans, clover, etc.) are different from other plants in the way that they obtain nitrogen. On the roots of legumes are nodules containing a certain kind of bacteria, and these bacteria transform (or fix) nitrogen from the air via ammonia into organic nitrogenous chemicals, from which the host plant manufactures protein. This is why legumes (such as soybean) are particularly rich in protein, and why they need no added nitrogenous fertilizer. In fact, when plowed in, legumes enrich the soil, and are therefore commonly used in four-crop rotation. Elements such as potassium, iron, sulfur, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, taken up from the soil, also play an essential role in plant chemistry. Plant cells and organs can now be grown under completely artificial conditions in the laboratory, on media that contain everything that the plant needs. Such techniques provide the cornerstone of plant biotechnology, a rapidly developing field that enables us to manipulate plants to an extent that was unimaginable just ten or twenty years ago. Transport and utilization of synthesized material The sucrose from photosynthesis together with certain amino acids are carried around the plant in the phloem to growing regions where they are needed for building cell walls or making protoplasm. Relatively massive amounts of sucrose and amino acids are also transported into storage organs such as tubers and into developing seeds, where they are stored as reserves until they are needed for growth and energy when the seeds germinate. Sucrose in a plant is in solution, so for convenience of storage sucrose is converted into starch. When energy is needed, the starch breaks down into soluble sucrose, which can easily be transported round the plant. Because of their reserves of starch, protein and vegetable oil, seeds are the most important constituents of the diets of many animals and humans - the cereals and pulses (peas, beans, etc.) being widely cultivated examples. Certain tubers and roots (potatoes, carrots, etc.) are similarly nutritious. Within the plant, energy must be provided to support all kinds of chemical processes. This energy comes from respiration. Respiration in plants involves broadly the same processes as it does in animals, including humans. In plants, oxygen is slowly absorbed from the atmosphere, and is used to oxidize ('burn') compounds such as glucose. The oxidation occurs in the organelles (miniature organs) called mitochondria that occur in each cell. Carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere as the waste product of this reaction. Water uptake and transport In terrestrial plants, water is taken up by the roots and moves up the plant in the xylem. Water evaporates from the leaf through microscopic pores, the stomata. These pores regulate water loss by opening and closing in response to light, carbon dioxide, and the amount of water within the leaf. When the leaves begin to lose too much water, a hormone, abscisic acid, is produced, and this causes the two 'guard' cells surrounding the pore to close it and thus prevent further escape of water vapor. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread ^2:,3W^ 4:5::4:4 :4:4;4:4:4 ;:4:4 5:4:4:4::4 :;4:;4:W W:4;4:;4:: 4:4:4:4: 4:4::4;:4 :5:4:4:4:4 ;4:5W :4::4:4:4 :4:5:4:4:4 :4;4:5:4:: 4::4:W W4:5:4 ;4:;4:5::5 4:5:: 4;:W^^ :4:;4:5:4; :4:4;4::^ :4:4] :4:4::4:4: 4:4:4::4; :4:4:4:4:4 :5:4:;4:4: 4::4:4:5:: 4;4:4; ^4:4^ 4:5:4;:4;4 :4:;4:;4:5 :4;:4; 4:;4:4:4:4 :5::5:4;4: :4:4:4::4: :4:4:4: :4;4::4:4: 4::5:4:4:4 ::4:: :4:4:4;:4; 4::4:4:4:: 4:5:4:5:4 4:4:4: 4:5:4:4:4; 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The chloroplast is the green area, and the blue inside it is a starch granule. The strands (grana) running through the chloroplast contain the chlorophyll pigments responsible for photosynthesis. The brown line at the right is the cell wall, the yellow area is the vacuole, and the larger red bodies are mitochondria, where oxidation of food occurs. Plant Physiology (3 of 6) Plant development and the environment Many aspects of plant development are governed by the environment. Rates of stem growth, for example, are determined by the brightness of light. By means of a light-absorbing protein, phytochrome, present in stems cells, a plant can detect how bright the light is and especially if it is in the shade of other plants. The growth of the stem then increases to carry the leaves into brighter light more suitable for photosynthesis. This ability is important in competition between plants, and may contribute to the phenomenal growth rates exhibited by many trees in dense tropical forests. Once the plant has reached bright light, the light affects stems by preventing the cell walls from becoming too stretchable, and this restricts cell expansion and hence limits growth. Curiously, light affects leaf cells differently, and actually increases the stretchability of cell walls: hence, leaves expand in light, providing a larger area to absorb the light needed for photosynthesis. Phytochrome is so sensitive that in seeds it can detect how deeply they are buried in the soil, or if they are shaded by other plants. This information will determine whether or not the seed germinates - if it is near enough the surface, the young shoot will soon reach the light it needs, but if the seed were to germinate too deeply, the young shoot would die before it reached the light.Plants can also bend towards light, an ability known as phototropism. It is thought that this may work through the redistribution of the growth hormone auxin to the darker side of the stem, which consequently grows more.Flowering is regulated by the duration of daily light - the photoperiod. Some species (e.g. chrysanthemum) form flowers more readily in short days, such as in autumn, while others (e.g. radish) do so in the long days of midsummer. Plants of many species form flowers only after experiencing low temperatures: these so called biennials do not flower in their first season, but only after the winter, in their second year. This phenomenon, called vernalization, together with the response to photoperiod, explains why different plants flower in different seasons. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture $ltL$ HPllHPH lll1l H$$llH,$$ P$P,H ($ltH$, lllllll lllllll $lHPl H$$$$$$ lltHl,l$$ H$H$H$$ $$HH$ -1P(,L,P(,P(11HPt ,$$lP lH$tP $$l$$$$$ $$$HlllH P,(P11(P,L1,(1 lll$$$ l$$$$H$$H$$ ,L0P(t0PT $$$$H$ lH$lll x,P,L, ,t,x,P $$HH$Pt$$ $$$HHll lllll PLtP$$t ll$H$HPH $$$$$ $$ll$$HHt$lP$l lllll PlPllH$$l$$ Hll$H$l HH$HH$$$HH l$$$$ $$$$l$$$,lH H$$$l$l tHH$H$H$H H$lll lllll L$$$$H$ xPP(x, PHH$$ $$$$$ $$$HlH $H$H$ TPTP(,L,L,P(P,( l$H$HHH H$HH,$H, lllllll PxTtxP x$,pP 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Tx\P,0xT \TTPT 8P0lP tTPTx,x xTt,pTt, 0t,tx,x, 0T,LT 0Hx0x 8$t0x P,,xP 0PPx,x TP,xxP 0x0H0 TT0tTT0 \xTP, ,l\$0 0xTxTt 8xt(TTxT PTTTTT,xT TPT,xTxTxx,x 8xTT,PTx0x ,,t,PT HTx0P 0P0tTxP x0x0P, ,x0,tt TxTT,x 0tTP0t(t` 0x\xx 0T,x0x0xTTT 8t0TT tTt0l 8t0$P 8HTx8$H Tt0xTxx Tx\tP \pxTP P,P,t,p ,x,P,PTP \tTxt0 $tTP$$l0t0H TxTT,L \P,xP tL$$t \T,pTx0 xTTPx,txx $T$t$ T0P,p xTTT\x\P (PTPx T,x0P,T,tT xT$$P x0$x\xx0 ,t0tL \xTTT\, \$,PTP $PP0xT \P,PTxTxT 0ttPx TP,t($ 0TTx\TP `PTTTx\ 0x\PL xTtTt T,,p, \T\\H,L \0,x, $PLTxT \TPTH x\TxP TTTt\ $x,L,P xTP,l 0t0TP p116-4 ftsTitleOverride Plant Physiology (page 4) ftsTitle Day: plants absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis than they give out by respiration. They also give out more oxygen by photosynthesis than they absorb from the atmosphere for respiration. Plant Physiology (4 of 6) PHOTOSYNTHESIS The chemicals in plants that give them their green color are the chlorophylls. The chlorophylls are particularly abundant in leaves, and are contained in chloroplasts, which are miniature organs within cells. Chlorophyll strongly absorbs the blue and red regions of the light spectrum, and this ability is used to drive the most important single chemical reaction on Earth. This reaction, which maintains both plant and animal life, is photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide that has entered the plant from the air via the stomata (microscopic leaf pores) is transformed into the sugar glucose, and eventually sucrose and starch. This transformation is powered by the energy from sunlight absorbed by the chlorophylls. This is how the plant obtains the organic carbon needed for the synthesis of the materials of which it is composed. 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+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ +*OIN+N OOsN$+$% +N+sN%* ONs$+ sO$+%NI*% O*OHO +NOO*I O*sN% ++++++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ++ONI %N+N% +NONO$$ +NrOH +*sNN% ++*+O +$++N O$OH+$O ++++++++++++++++++ +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ *%NOH +N+r% NO$$+NONI O*sN$ *Or+O Or+HON ++O*I +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ ONOH+ INO$+OO%N O+sNO $OrNI +O$N$ +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ +s*l+ ONz$+HON% NOrIN O+s+O ++sNH %+Os*l s*sON ++r%* s*OON +*sO* +Ns%N s*s*s ONON%* +NsN%*%$+ +ONON% OrON+ +sNs$ ++sO$ ONsN+% ++sNr% yO+++yOs++OOsO OOOs++ p116-5 ftsTitleOverride Plant Physiology (page 5) ftsTitle Dawn and dusk: with less light available for photosynthesis, plants give out similar amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide as they take in. Plant Physiology (5 of 6) Overall, the chemical reaction of photosynthesis is: Sunlight 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 carbon water glucose oxygen dioxide But this simple equation hides the complex chemical nature of photosynthesis, which comprises a set of reactions involved with the absorption of light (the light reactions) and a set that can take place in darkness (the dark reactions). The essential feature of the light reactions is that the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen ultimately released by plants is the source of all oxygen in the atmosphere of this planet. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 2zz:2 z22z: zz 2zz 22z:22 );Y;z y3y;2 y2:zz z:2zz2:2z ;zq z:22 zz::qz:*Y: 2z2:z:2 z32Yz 2:z:zz:22z :z2z:z 22z2z z2z;z2: 2:y{:22 ;2:zz Yz:22 z3z:z z2:2z Y:r:: 22z:22 2zr:2 q2:23z 2Y:Vz {::2z y{2:z z2Vz:y zz2Y2z 22:zz zz22:z 32z2:y2q z{:2y 22zYz2 ;zzz2^ zYz:2 z:zY2 z2z:2:z z:2:z zz2:y ^zzz2:Y 2:Y2z zz:Y2 22;)z22 zz22y 3:2zY 22:z:2 z:Y2zz 2z:zz z2zz:2Y{ ^2zz:2: 2:z2:Vzy z:2{z z:z{ z:2:2 2:2zz22z y:22z: ::z22: zz22:z zz2zzz ;zYzB12z 222zz 32zzz2 zz:zV:z2 zz;zz V;z:z ;2:z:y 2:z:z:2 2:{Yz z2z22z z:2:2 2:2zz2 zzz22 zzz22z :zz:z 2z2:2z 222:z 2z2z: ^22:yz2 z222:z zz:2z z;qC* :zz22:z2 {z2:z z;*y{ 2z2:z Yz:zz z2zYz :2zz2:22 z2::2 2:zzz2:Yzz2::z zz2:2 zy:*:2 z22:z:z 222:z zz2:z2z:2) zz:Y;* 2zYzz2 z22:z2 :zz:22Y2 z:;zz;2 :2:z:2 z22:z :2:2zz 2{Y;) 2z::zz ;YzzqB2 2:);y;) yz:;y ;zz:z 22zzz V2:z2Y2 zz2::zz2V 2:z:q: :zy;):y z:z22 z:q z r:2 q; 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:3:z: zzz2z2:z:2 z2:y0 z:z:2 zz3Yz2 z:z:2z:2zY 2Y;zz z::z; 22:2zz :z;2zBz 2::zz 2:2:zz: 2:22zz:V ;z2y:22 222:222: zzz22 zzz222z :z:y{Y z:z2: z:22z::22 z:y9x 2z2yz z22Y{ 3:z2Y{:z:zz: z:z:z V2zzz22 :z z:22 22:2z z:zz2 z:z:y 2zzY:* :zZ2:;z z:z22 2y2:z) q;z2:z {:*:2y zV:2:2 Vz:z;2 z:^rBz2V z:2:2 z:2;yz r22:z 2:)Cq 2:z:z z:2:2 2:y;z: 22yzz:z q:) z 2:r:zz zy:q z:)z2{ zz:z:2 z:2zz *:2rB)B* {2:zz 2z2:z:2:2 Yz;:z z2z:z 2:2zz z::;zy:z2y z2z:z 1y22z :zzY; zz:2zz q:2W2 zz:Y;y zz:22z z:2:z :q2:2_ :1z:zz yz;:z; *:1;z zz:2:zz22 ;2yz2 z::Y:z z:zz: ----- zY2:z 2:zz1 :zz;Y 2zz;y2 z:2zzz:2z 22z22zz zz1;2 2z:z:2 z::zzz:z2zz; 22z:z 2Y:yz: z:z:2: 2-(1:2:z 2z:zz^ 2:z{:z: :zzYz;z zz2:z: z:):z2 2z:zz:z :2z:z 2zz:z z:z2z z2:2z 2:z:z2 :zY:z:2z:z zzz2z:2z :2zzz z:z2: z2:z:z z2:z2 22z:z22 z2:z:1{2zz: z:z2Y 2:z;y:zz V:z:2 z:qCy z:2;zz:qCq z:Y2z: z;y:2z :z2z: 2z:z{ 22;z2 2zz2y * q;2 *:z;z z:y;1 r:z:2 z2:zz 2z:z:z z:z:z z:z ) z:z:z z:z:z p116-6 ftsTitleOverride Plant Physiology (page 6) ftsTitle Night: with no light available, photosynthesis ceases. However, respiration continues, with oxygen being absorbed and carbon dioxide being given out. Plant Physiology (6 of 6) In the dark reactions carbon dioxide is converted into glucose by a complex cycle of chemical transformations, some of which use the hydrogen generated from water, and the chemical energy that has been produced from light energy. Because in photosynthesis carbon dioxide is used up and oxygen given out as a waste product - the reverse of plant and animal respiration - the overall effect of plants and animals living together is to keep the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere more or less constant. The felling and burning of vast areas of tropical forest, combined with industrial processes that produce vast quantities of carbon dioxide, may contribute to an imbalance in the atmosphere, and hence to the 'greenhouse effect'. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 8xx11 x8y08xx x0080p0 1x8y8 Tyx8( xx98x 0x8x8 0x8x\8 x808x x8x0x x88x9 x8x8y (x881 0x8x1 x1x8x xx9x8 0x\8x \yx80 18x\x 9xx9808y y80(( 08x9x xx8090 1x89x x98xdx x8x8x $00x8px (0x$( 90x80 x9x8xx T8x8x xx809 xx8y8 x88x9 xx9x0 ($()(( H((M((x(x( xy00x ((8xT x8x8x9 x809xx8 \08\M 008xdy x8y8x x80]0 0(0H( 090\\x 01p9Y y8x10 x101( x9y8y 8x80Ty (x01xx x8x9x x089\ yx81x x98x0 8x08]x 0x9x\ ::2;: 08(Ap 2::_2; C2;:^ ;:;^; :;^:^ :^;:: ;C2;;: 3B::;: x9008x (x8(@q 0x8y8x8xx 0(0x( 8x889 \xx80 x8xd( x8x9x x8x8x 08y8( xx808x0 yx8x9 T88]T x80x8x x180x y8x0x 80y8x x8(0(( xx\8xx 0098x ydxx88y xx818 x8x8xx 8x18x 8x8xp xy890 0p8x90 0(x0x8 yx08x0 090\x x8y8x \xx008x x8x@1 0818x 08x8x xx080 x\0808 0xx\0 @x9xx x0808 0x80@T ((0x0x9x x\x9x( U8x8x 0x8x8y 0x8y0( x8y8yxy 09x8xx 09xx0 xx8x80 80x9x x088y 10x0x(( xx80x8 x0\-\8 988xx x]xxy80x8 x881x 081x( 8y8xx \1xx0 0x9x\ x8x8x 0108x( 8x8x\ x9x80 xp(00 x818x\x x8x9x 0Axx8x 09x8x 808yx p118-1 ftsTitleOverride Fungi, Algae and Non-Flowering Plants (page 1) ftsTitle Lichen in Greenland. Lichen are actually symbiotic associations of certain fungi and algae. They can withstand extreme cold, and therefore can survive at high altitudes and high latitudes. One species has been found below 89 South in Antarctica. Fungi, Algae and Non-Flowering Plants (1 of 2) The most primitive plants comprise the spore-bearing mosses and liverworts. Fungi and algae are not, as is popularly supposed, plants. Fungi constitute a separate kingdom of their own, and algae are an important group of Protoctista. In all there are about 150,000 different species of fungi, algae and primitive plants, the ancestors of which were the first colonizers of the land surface of our planet 400-500 million years ago. More advanced and larger forms of plant life slowly evolved: the earliest ferns emerged during the Devonian period, about 400 million years ago, and the conifers more than 300 million years ago during the Carboniferous period. The primitive plants evolved from the even simpler plant-like protoctists, which floated at or near the surface of the oceans. These ancestral forms were washed ashore and gradually developed into forms that were eventually to spread to every land area. However, knowledge of these ancient species is still incomplete. General characteristics of primitive plants Primitive plants are usually extremely small in size, growing horizontally rather than vertically. There is little visual difference between the roots, stems or leaves. They lack specialized cells for transporting water and nutrients around the plant and because of this are called non-vascular plants (i.e. without veins). A separate line of evolution in the middle and late Devonian period (410-355 million years ago) produced the first tree-like land plants. These were the ancestors of the present-day horsetails (small herbaceous reed-like plants). Some 400 million years ago they grew to a large size - 10 m (30 ft) tall - and formed the very first forests. Alongside the horsetails were an early form of conifer. They reproduced by means of spores (a primitive feature) but had cells that had many of the characteristics of the later conifers. These trees had an extensive branch system, and leaf-like structures that were to develop into the needle-like leaves of the modern conifer. The simple bodies of the primitive plants have no means of controlling the loss of water from their cells. They are confined to permanently damp areas such as along river banks, in bogs or in areas of high rainfall. Some have adapted to cope with short, dry spells by becoming dormant. Water plays an essential role in the complex cycle of reproduction. The life history of primitive plants as illustrated by the bryophytes (mosses and liverworts; see below) can be divided into two distinct parts. A 'leafy' green stage culminates in the formation of male and female organs. Sexual reproduction can only occur if moisture is present so that the male sperm can swim to a female 'egg'. The second stage comprises a microscopic structure called a zygote, which develops into a spore-producing capsule. The spore germinates and grows into the 'leafy' stage. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture P01Ua P0t,$ ,9$0P $]t]] Ux9x, ]x9\L 0btU= bUaP]xU 1PUt8 ,90xy t$T1$H 1Q0a,0t H0Q9M $j]9U -TaPa PTU]U ]aUxV Lx1>t t$=ty $0u8- T\$UT $0U1?y 0b],P 1=xft $1x\yT] $TP1$ xUTU] Q]LxUU x1Tt\ 1$1\,PUTPT y0y$a ,t]Tx ,9UP- b119yTQ]0 $TU,x 9$,x9 U\1]] 1$12, ZaP1,y0 $PUTP,t QTxxxPxTU UP,Q( ,,HPH P-xx,Q,yxxtUt P,1P$1 UH]U1TU x1UU$] P]yT] Ty$x2 x10t] \LTU]xTyPU UU0y1TU u00yU, UU0-, ,U,19 9y0Q8$9$ )P(P1y 1y,010 yU]-yTQPx 1P]Uy Tu0]$ 1PUx1,ta 1y1U9 T]0UT ,0U]t0Q0 y0y]t 1x]y]U 0y0yUTu ]x]Tb UT-TUy1x0 TUt]QP PyUTH yU9y] Tx-]PUxPU0 UTT1x1T- u]P]y tTy,P1 T1Ux1 \y1x, xtTP(,P y0UUP 0t(,Ux9-P 1TTUu PQ(1-, -0UTP 11UYUP1 -0Q1U01 0yU1U1T11U1 Y1111U -0U11 1111$ U1P1y1U T1-1U1 -0y1T] YU111 >f?> 11UU$ 1-1-11-1 b b b b b b? b b b b ^ b b f b j k b b b j j j j k b b f b cf b b b b f b b b bf b b b j b b b b b b b b b b j b b B b B b > 6 b > > b c ? b bf > f bC b c g > b b ? f cf ? b b bf > b bb bf bcf b b > b bB >gc > >c C b b b b b b c > c bB b >B > b > > b ?f > b b bf b bf > b C b b b b bf b b ?B > > b> b > >B >? > fcB > > >g: b b b b b bb b >cfb > ? f>gb bg bB ?:>; b bf B^bcBc:c:?f ^b? >B >_bf >f bB f b :? >cf^? >; b b_>^? f b b bf b^?f?> >gb^? >_>;b:?: > bC^>c f b > >B_>;>^? :cB:c: :bC:b;b: : >:_> >: b;>g;>^;b:c: :c: :c: b b b^ bc>g:c>:?^:>^? >_>_:>;b^c: Zg::c:b; ?:>_:b; ^ : > >_:b;:c:b^_>^?^>_:b;:c: :b?^>; ^>?^: >^;>^>: : : :: ::b;: _:;^:c: : ^:>;>^;^::^ : : :;^: f ^b^^^^;^;^?:?^::_:; ^ b b _:_>:;^> b^b: ;:^: ^>: _::^;: ::_:: >^:^:^;^:^ p118-2 ftsTitleOverride Fungi, Algae and Non-Flowering Plants (page 2) ftsTitle t%(&o The fly agaric toadstool is a poisonous but only occasionally fatal fungus. Its name derives from its use as a poison on flypaper. The toadstools one sees are only short-lived fruiting bodies; the main bodies of fungi are dense clusters of underground fibers. Liverworts - with mosses - belong to the group known as bryophytes. There are two main kinds of liverwort: one has a flat liver-like body, while the other has stems and leaves. The club moss (Lycopodium) is not actually a moss, but a primitive vascular plant. It grows true roots, but sexual reproduction relies on the presence of moisture. Horsetails - another primitive vascular plant - have hollow, segmented stems. Giant tree-like ancestors of the horsetails grew in the Carboniferous period (355-300 million years ago), and their fossilized remains form an important part of many coal seams. Ferns - like many primitive plants - alternate between asexual and sexual forms. The asexual generation consists of the plants we are familiar with, which produce spores on the underside of their fronds. The spores grow into the sexual generation; this consists of tiny heart-shaped plants, which produce egg and sperm cells. The cycads, a small order of tropical plants, belong to the same group (the gymnosperms) as the conifers, and are among the oldest seed-bearing plants. Like the conifers, they produce male and female cones, and when the latter are fertilized by windblown sperm cells from the former, seeds are produced. Fungi, Algae and Non-Flowering Plants (2 of 2) Fungi The fungi differ in most respects from plants. They form a diverse group numbering 70,000 different species, including mushrooms, toadstools, molds, mildews and rusts. They do not contain chlorophyll and thus cannot photosynthesize. Fungi contain many thousands of 'cells', but these do not have cell walls. Instead the protoplasm (which is made of chitin and not of cellulose as in other plants) is continuous and contains more than one nucleus. The main body of a fungus occurs beneath the soil or organism surface and is arranged in branched threads called hyphae. These intertwine and grow into a dense mat of white fibers. The visible portion - the toadstool - is a short-lived fruiting body from which new spores are released. Fungi perform the essential job of decomposing dead plants and animals. Some have become parasitic on plants and animals. Forty species produce disease in humans, from ringworm and athlete's foot to serious lung infections. Damage to stored food products from fungal deterioration amounts to many hundreds of millions of dollars' worth per year. On the positive side, fungi have been developed into essential antibiotic drugs such as penicillin. Algae Algae are flat, slimy, green organisms that can cling to almost any damp surface. Algae are found on the bark of trees, in water, on rocks in hot sulfurous springs, and in soil to a depth of a meter (3 ft) or so. Some have become parasitic on plants and animals. All algae photosynthesize, and nearly all are unicellular, although many marine forms (the seaweeds) are arranged in long strands or filaments; the Pacific kelp can grow up to 30 m (98 ft) in length. Even unicellular algae show amazing diversity of shape and form, often being decorated with arms or bristles. Algae have few direct commercial uses for humans, although seaweed is gathered and used as fertilizer in some parts of the world, while in Japan it provides a locally important human food source. In the West, it has been made into food for animals, while in recent years its popularity as a health food has increased. However, algae play a vital role in providing a source of food for many other life forms. They are of great importance in marine food chains, where they form the main food supply of many fish and crustaceans. Lichen The lichens are a special group, comprising a slow-growing and intimate association between fungus and alga. In most cases the fungus forms the 'skeleton' on and in which live the algae. Most lichens occur on the surfaces of rocks or tree trunks and are particularly common at higher altitudes. They are used as essential additives for perfumes, and in the manufacture of antibiotics. They were also formerly used as an early form of litmus paper, and their presence or absence is sometimes used as an indicator of atmospheric pollution. Mosses and liverworts This group of primitive plants are called the bryophytes. They are small, often inconspicuous plants that grow in dense mats in shaded, damp places. Their smallness of size is due to the lack of strengthening tissues in their stems. The evolutionary position of bryophytes is unclear as they show features common to both lower and higher plants. Some botanists believe they have developed from green algae. Although living on the land, they are not considered to be true land plants. The true land plants Life on land requires some very special modifications to be made to the body of plants. One of the distinguishing features of true land plants is their possession of specialist tissues - xylem and phloem - for the transport of water and synthesized materials. Land plants require strengthening tissue to allow them to grow upright, and they also need to be able to control water loss from their cells. Finally, the embryos of land plants need more protection than water plants. Plants that show these features are called vascular plants. They first appeared in the fossil record during the Silurian period (425 million years ago). Members of this group quickly achieved world dominance, and during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods (410-300 million years ago) they formed vast forests that eventually rotted down and were compressed to form the Carboniferous coal measures. Unlike primitive plants, the vascular plants possess true roots, stems and leaves. Today, few of the ancestral vascular plants remain. Those that do are small but physically tenacious. Examples include the clubmoss and the horsetail. Of the early vascular forms, ferns are now the most numerous, but due to the clearance of land for agriculture and woodland, many have become endangered species. The seed plants The earliest forms of vascular (veined) plants (such as the fern) showed one important similarity to the non-vascular plants. They retained a complex two-stage life cycle in which one part, the gametophyte stage in which fertilization occurred, was totally dependent on water for its success. This was clearly unsuited for life on land. Only a short time after the first spore-bearing vascular plants appeared in the fossil record there also occurred a different group in which the embryo was contained in a resistant seed that could (if conditions were unfavorable) remain dormant for many years before finally germinating. The conifers Seed plants have been traditionally divided into two groups, the less specialized gymnosperms and the more advanced angiosperms . Fossils of the leaves of the early gymnosperms are so similar to the ferns that at first they were classified as such. Only when their seeds were discovered were they reclassified as seed-bearing plants. Although five different groups of gymnosperms have been recognized, only one group - the conifers - remains of importance today. The conifers include all the resinous, softwood trees such as pines, spruces, firs and larches. The 'leaves' are evergreen (except in larches) and needle-like, and the reproductive organs are separated into small male cones and larger female cones. Conifers can grow to great heights - over 100 m (328 ft) in the case of sequoias and Douglas firs. They grow in extensive forests in the colder temperate zones, and are of great economic importance as sources of timber. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1],y9 Uxy\x 0T9\$a T1T0T 1\,9T0 9T890 09PT]0 9\]\1 00Ux9 8T\18U \8U0e T`]0] T18T9xaT aT\]\ ]\09\8 U\\a\\ \\U8\] \9\98a0 -\0T9, T01U09T T10U01TT T01\0 ,T10U01 0P00] U8x1U0 P001T1 T9T\]` ,0U01T U0T1T0x TQ]U0 0U01T0 T0y\T 0U0T0 1\01x ]T01T8 0TUT]y9\ 0T1T0T1\x 0T0T1 `T\U\y 0-1T0 0T00UT]00T -1x-p 0UTU00U0U0 1-TQ( U00T1T0 0y0\010T x9x1T0T] ,x0T0x\ \T1T10] xTH0\t( T1P(t |8Ta_ \\]]a 8]]\a 1,11]0T] 1U19] 9\\]]\a \T9U8 0]]\\ ]]8\18 8\]\9 p,T1T \T01\UT T10180 ,UVuU \]\]\ d]0]8 x,x0, \9\8U ]U8T9 9T\]] \]]9T \]]8T u-$Ut t1u9V ^UyUI\ aUa^a\ 99a]] m$V^0$ l1--P T0T1T T0xTI P(-TQ 9\TU9 yxUPH Ty\yTxU$ Ty11T--1 $,L$0, U-,M, $HLP, -(-11x ,P1y, x9P0T- 8U8UT\ \T]]a- 9U\xU u-x$,p x,-P,t T9T0^ 1tP(P, x1\]\0 tUtUT P$T$, y\yUx U\T]\ Uxy,,U $]xUT ,xyxy 1$\U1 1x-Lx 1x,ytTx-) t0QTx0Q0t \xPy0y,,( yy,TQTPL PUP,Q xPLUP pxPMT TU0]]T TPUtUP, tTTPyTP,( $t)P$t ,tTP(PTt1 PPLtPL ,p,,t(,, ,P(P( $$,H$t tlTtPxP $tpPl 0]U00 lPuHV ,y,M0y yUtQtQL y1yy,-,) l,l$$ $$PHPul $t,PL-P $ytlMl $$P$t 0-81b $t$0H$ tTx1y $-qVI ,$0HPx\ $PL,ptP, -a9ya1 ,H$$%0H l$H,$ TP-qt TTHTt pQHPl HattH2 PHPp$$H, IT$$HH t9\,$ 88ey` T9-0T0x p120-1 ftsTitleOverride Flowering Plants (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Cross-section of a typical flower showing the stamen containing the pollen (male sperm) and the carpel containing the female egg. The process of fertilization is described in the main text. Flowering Plants (1 of 4) The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most advanced and dominant plant forms on the Earth. Some 250 000 different species have been identified. The first true flowering plants appeared in the fossil record during the early Cretaceous period, some 135 million years ago. The angiosperms differ from the gymnosperms in a number of major ways. The main difference is the presence of the flower, a specialized part of the plant that develops into a fruit and within which is held one or more well-protected seeds. Other differences include broader leaves that are sometimes highly ornate, and stems that do not contain resin ducts. Flowering plants occupy every possible habitat apart from snow and ice, hot springs, and the oceans. Apart from these extreme locations, the flowering plants can grow in the driest, wettest, hottest, coldest, most exposed and most sheltered sites on this planet. They show an amazing variety of size and shape, ranging from just 1 mm (1/25 in) for the smallest to about 100 m (328 ft) for the tallest (a eucalyptus tree), while members of the baobab family have attained girths of almost 55 m (180 ft). The structure of flowering plants At the base of a flowering plant is a finely branched root system. The roots provide anchorage in the soil, and also collect moisture in which are dissolved the nutrients needed for growth. From the roots arise either a single, vertical cylindrical stem, or multiple, branched stems. The stem is held erect either by the presence of the fluid within it or by cells that have become strengthened by deposits of lignin (as in woody plants). The stem is strong yet very light and supple. Its purpose is to hold the leaves towards the Sun, thus maximizing the opportunity for photosynthesis. Growing from the junctions between leaves and stem are the flowers. The flower consists of a series of circular structures. On the outside are the leaf-like sepals, which protect the flower at its bud stage. Inside are the petals, often brightly colored to attract pollinating insects. At the center of the flower is the carpel; this consists of the sticky stigma and, below it, the style, and a slightly swollen area (the ovary), within which is the ovule containing the egg. Immediately surrounding the stigma are the stamens, which consist of a thin stalk with pollen sacs at the end. Each pollen sac ripens to produce large numbers of tiny pollen grains (the male sperm). * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread p120-2 ftsTitleOverride Flowering Plants (page 2) ftsTitle Magnolia bear a strong resemblance to the first flowering plants that appeared some 135 million years ago. Flowering Plants (2 of 4) Reproduction Pollination occurs when a pollen grain (originating either from the stamens within the plant or transported by wind or an insect from an adjacent flower of the same type) is deposited on the stigma and cuts a channel (the pollen tube) down to the ovary. The ovary swells to form a fruit, within which is the seed, containing an embryo of a new individual. This is formed by fertilization: the fusion of egg and pollen nucleus. Many kinds of plants can also perform vegetative reproduction. This may involve the parent plant sending out side shoots that develop their own leaves and roots, which can then be separated from the parent (for example, grasses, strawberries). Plants such as potatoes can produce tubers, all of which can give rise to new plants; and a similar method is found in bulbs, corms and rhizomes. Classifying the flowering plants Despite such an amazing variety of species the flowering plants can be divided into just two main botanical groups based upon the structure of the embryo. The first group (70 000 species) are the monocotyledons (abbreviated to monocots), which produce just one seed leaf from the germinating embryo. Examples of monocots include grasses, maize, wheat, daffodils, irises and palms. The leaves of monocots are generally long and narrow with parallel veins. Monocots are considered to be more primitive than the larger, second group (180 000 species), the dicotyledons (or dicots). These produce new plants with two seed leaves. Examples include oak trees, roses, beans, tomatoes and dandelions. The leaves of dicots are generally more rounded, with branching veins. A number of very specialized adaptations have taken place that allow certain plants to live upon other plants. Some, such as mistletoe growing on trees, are parasites . Others, such as some orchids, use other plants merely for support, and are known as epiphytes. Others again have become carnivorous and trap insects on their leaves: the insects are then digested and their fluids absorbed. Carnivorous plants (which include sundew, butterwort, Venus flytrap and pitcher plants) tend to have evolved in areas where the soil is poor in nutrients. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture UuqUy PyPQU $-L-$ 1-1U1y ,xUU1 l-Pm$ tQ($0t-$ t,p$, u,M-$ x ^$1 qxQP$ tqt1P(2- V^:z: uTuUu L,Q$-Q PyP)u p-tytQ UI,M$ PyPM,Q,M, PMtUyQL uu(uLu- 1,-1(-- %P,qt$$ qPuUu1 UyUPUy )t-pQ q,Q(Q ,yTuL ,PM-t)t UuQTy %uH1P ,L-x-u(y$ 0yt)PQT )t-H) -pUP]$ ,UuTy UtuMP-t P$-p- -UP%T UtMP)%P R$y$% ^2-:z $$TQp -tQ$1 $QxQq t-LQt UQ-y, $1P(-$8U TI,)H 01,1- U11z1 %P$$, y-uU% 0T1,Q Tm-P) 1uL$,y qQ$QHu HPu$-$$ yT$tPM Zu1yY 8Q1ta -QL%$ 0]2f&t( Q,qPQ )t1u($\ fI,m,m PPMPu )t-pQ P1-1z QMHQIH -tMuL xQt(u, Z^:z:^ --PTP] -11-UU $QMP(, L-H(u uuQP$ 1,0U1 IP(Q$ UuuqQP --L-P 2Q,PU$ U:z:V2 9lUlTy$ 0u0y0 -11^2 UyxQuT 11--P RyUyT- Q,($u,t ,t)Q, zU1UY Q$UtMU ,MPQL y1y-- TQQL,P(Q, QyQIT )$$1tQ -xUup-P)%t (,H,H t$-$$ 1u$Q$1 qPu(u$u Uu,q,yQq ,uPyQyy ,p%,)l }-T-T $$P%P$u,$ $(QHH) P-H,Q UuyQ) 1,U1U 1y1-- u0U-] y,I,$ z0z:- QL-PMU$ t)tQL,QLQ -tq1uLy, H0t)$ $0-U1 ,MPQH QpUtUtyQt 1m,$$ U^V\t $$,$x $P-xl 11-1-1 0u(PQ y1U11 U12UU lpQ$t( ,t)t- H,$$9 ),,LQ tyP$T QTuUt 1-L1U1 ut0uL uTu]t$ ,MPMPL -QxUup QHQLPu1 Ltt)$ IPt$Qx Q$y$P \.b ^ 11,T1: -$0q,-T ,-P1PU t-L-$ UPQL- $,H,$P $-$uLt- ^VQLQLQPM ye_V-P PL$PM tMPLQLu ,HPQ) Q($QL-t QpQu$ yT-xy xyUy-Y tMQtU T11-1z --1V2y u(uH, mHTu,m qtQ$P x-H,$ QtMm, $PQL$ z1U11 zu(It PM,Q$-l 1U1^- HPlQ$ P(-$$,l QLQtq 9-z2z QyPLQP )yt(t1 y2lTP P($$, .$,$$ mH,t$ vQpQpQ ,1-T:Q yuTytxTzy -M\V ^ -1*U21 U-11-1 ,QMPq 1-1-11U1VU qQlulu Ul,quT -L,LQy 1-11-- -H,u) P($H$P UPyUu t)tTxUyx QtH,p- tMPm,p- Pq,uQ (QPMP$ ,-TQ)u MyPuxP MY:RU $PM,- LQ,M$ Qutyu -U-x]q %,I$,u QMPyx uP-u, z22Y2 2V:2-- MU1Q) 1--1) 1y11y V1y1y zPMPt L$P-p,01 -U11-U ,1Q)1)11 0UUyP U11-1 y-UP- 1U1--,1)Q Q1M1- U1Q-, -(y-,- 1-1-U1 1--U-1 $$P$l$ x21y- 1y1U11-M, 21T-U-,Q P-11L $P)t1 ulqHI,qH, uMt,q$-( 11Q9z P1-112 MHPQH .-Q,M yuQpP$,p uLQPMPuq$ )1t1- QIuHu tMuLQ lPM,tp tMP-L UV1y1, (1Q11 tuPMUP QPQuy 2y1-UT1 1-1Q1 UuuMP ,y,UTU, -11yU 1y1y- Vz2Y2 2UU11P-- V1U1U- x11-- 2Y2U2 Q1y1y-1u1q 10]x0 y11P1T11-M -1U^% VVU2U2 11Q-U1Q1-Q M,11V$ ]TU-P q$tLu P$,$,$P M1P1T1U1) --1Q2 U11-U1 QH-pmH 1Q)U,U-,-- QLQ0$ t,%$QHH ,-)-1 tmP),Q 1VU2y HPLH,pml u(QH-t M1-1) ,T-TQ] 1U-(Q1Q $-1-1 $UyyU y1y1y: QLQp- y1u-1P --TU- yy11y 1),P(- U-1y1y uPLPQ -1U2U2y1y QpuuLu z1Q)P ),Q,$ $,-$-( PUyU- -y1U-1T,T- ,(tl- (u(U- U1)-, $,tqH R11tUTQ yR1-- P1)TV )1--PV 2I(1T lTuLQ(QL 1P-1$ --,1,1 UtuM$,H 1-,-T 0Q1,L1% TUy1y -U1-I LQ,M, UQ,M,u H9L]$ $$u,LQ$ y2yT0T UQ--1q l,yUt -TUQ) YTxU$ P)P)$t$ UzU2y], ,My-U $]y-y PI,$PL ,M,P- M-Uy1 11--11 PQ$P$ M--11V- -1Q11 1UQ-- $PM,u PL0y- ,uPM, H$-P%$$ tMxuLQ u%tUt u$H$,$ %t(m,%P U-QU-, qtMlQ qutl$QH- Ut$u,L uPy%$ qPut- z1U%\ xUTP]y xQxuP] yTy8y MQyl, tl-p% 21-,1 I$H-p, Mum,p -U1-L (t(PPL UtUuup, V-UQ1y P-11-1- uLQPM Qtu(Qx T1Q-Uy-1y ),1-11y lQLQQ -pQH,u U,-y1z11y Q-UT- )-,-1U1y ,ytqtQ P(1t1y 11U10 )T-UYUy y)1Q0Q1U ,-U,1 U,-U1)-1 Q1,-11y Mtmtqu T-LT1 )1(1-M --1(-T -Q110y PMPuT --U-x T1-Q]y tqPpUtyl 0,U1y (11-1U 1--11 P1-1Q0-U ,-,1M1--0- UP$-LHQ UP0UQ $,MPQLQl Q(QpQy PPLQu HtPHtQ $01yy1Q H,H,q, ul-lu tUtQP$ ,xQxQL ,-U1T11 y1-uY PLQLQ $QP-$ ,UPUx] 1QQ-T y-yUQ-1yQ Q0Q11 PMTUYU 1UQ0Q1 $,$t- 11Q1q 1P1T] t(y,) Y--P] y11y-1 1-L,Q ,U1z-y I,)tI,H ,m,I, M,mTm -$,(Q )Q(u= $,L1,11y QxQyt) t-H-PM Ty$y1 y1u9Q tq,%$$ (u,p- ]10P(t1x-$ Mu,L-Q uLu,t zzUy1 yQt(y-t QPyt] T1TQpyP IPLH,I8% 21y1$ up-tq VQ(-P t1P)P U-11- \VU9Q0 -UQ(-$ $UYUQ -,L,L %$1y- Uy-M0 u1-,U 01U-P P,(U,l U-pPq $Q(,, 1U1QQ U1yVU1yUy- U1yUz- q,QLU y^P(- )$,P( uLtp, $Mx,p R-T1y1 UQ1y= xTTU,T QU1UT1 U-1y1u -PU,u l-H,l pu,uMl PPM$U tyPPQL QL%,P uxy-m tPmt)t )1y-M- HUpuQu$Q Qty(t --U1-- Pu($,M $P)t- IPL-L- ,p-l,tM UuLH$ yU-y1 (u,qTQ ,Q$,Q 1-UUy UQ1U1 u(H-( ,-x1- yQ1Q1 y1yU1y uIx%, LQLPQ$ y--P1y1y Uy9u) uLu,L- -TR]y1 HPMTu, $uH$-$$ PuLu(Ql -U11-1p1 :y2x,U0T yu$,qu) uPHH$8 yu)tu $%,qP 11y-1 y1y0xT (ut)PL 5Tu]z H-LHP ,Ht)H y-U-U -MUU1 -T1T\ QpuQp H,H-,q uqQuL TQ-L- -tqt-t) LPptH QtMt)PLl -l$Hy .1M1$ ]uPQ$ ,P110- ,QTQ$ H--1UU ,-1yU yPQyT u-pPu UyVyQ ,(u-t ytUuQ( UVU11y--P TVUVU1y1U -yTu1u p120-3 ftsTitleOverride Flowering Plants (page 3) ftsTitle Carnivorous plants make up for nutrient-poor soil by trapping and digesting insects. This sundew, which lives in boggy areas, has caught an insect on its sticky hairs. Other forms of carnivorous plant include pitcher plants and Venus flytraps. The former have slippery pitcher-shaped organs into which insects slither, while the latter have hinged leaves that snap shut when an insect touches one of its sensitive trigger hairs. Flowering Plants (3 of 4) The importance of flowering plants The development of the flowering plants was one of the most significant events in the biological history of this planet. The existence of an advanced plant population that could survive unfavorable climatic events and that produced large quantities of leafy growth provided a superabundance of food for grazing and browsing animals. The dead and decaying vegetation also aided the formation of a thick layer of humus on the soil surface, and this in turn helped retain the nutrients within the soil. The great variety of vegetation types supports an equally varied animal population. Humans are totally dependent on the flowering plants for food (cereals, root crops, pulses, beans, nuts, fruit) or for feeding to domesticated animals. The flowering plants also provide industrial crops (cotton, jute, sisal) and timber, and are increasingly yielding vital medicinal extracts. Some 25% of medicines already contain extracts from the tropical rain forest, a figure thought likely to increase greatly in the future. Not only are the flowering plants of immense economic value, but, with the non-flowering plants, they are also responsible - via photosynthesis - for stabilizing the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere. As such they help to maintain the heat balance of the planet. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture TxTxy l$llH T$Qp$lP $U,-U $H$P$$ $H,MPQ( QLt$$ $H$$y xTUx1, ll$H$uT yu(P$QM,uL Q,)QyP xTxUx tH,t_ 0xxTz $,M,l llPHP H,$,$ $H$H$,$$ tHPp$ TxPq$$ ,$$uLtQlPl lPlPl t1l-$H $$tLl$I HHP$$P tlHlPyT QLH,u$ $,H,$ \xH,PxQy tH,lH, $$H$H $lt$P (l$tltQ PH$,U,1pl, $$,Lu,q l,$HP P$QLQ H,$HU$ xPl$u lHl$R l,$,U l$Hl$ lP$$yP (H$Q$$ $Ht$H $$tlP Ht$$Hy Pl$,uP HlPl$Q l-qPl TxPl-l ,L$$, ,lHlU ,(t$P- ,l$tH $ylPHP lHltll,tl llPlP Hll,HH H,,Ll$l HH,$$ t$$HQ lHH,lH lH,Lu $tPHlHU pH,lPl $$H$$Uu H$$yP Hll$l $lQ-p$Hl $P$H$ lt$HQ lPH1$ ,HHlt lH,$u ,yy%, $l$uu$ $H,H$l QPuUy ,$l$Htl $$Hyl$ PPHIu QlH$Hl p120-4 ftsTitleOverride Flowering Plants (page 4) ftsTitle A bee pollinating a flower while collecting nectar for honey. Flowering Plants (4 of 4) POLLINATION In primitive plants, reproduction is a haphazard event, reliant upon water and wind to propagate the species. In contrast, many flowering plants use the flight of insects to improve the efficiency of their reproduction. The colored, scented petals of flowers attract insects. Once inside the bowl-shaped flower, the insect crawls around eating pollen and brushing it off the stamens and onto its body. The insect then visits the flower of another plant, where the pollen from the first plant is brushed onto the stigma, so fertilizing the second flower (see main text). This achieves the all-important process of cross-fertilization, the process whereby genetic material from different plants is exchanged. This ensures the maintenance of vigor within the species, and allows it to produce variants that can colonize new localities. If the male and female organs in the flower reach maturity at different times, cross-fertilization - rather than self-fertilization - is assured. Many amazing examples of special relationships between flowers and insects have developed. Many flowers produce a sugary fluid called nectar, which serves no other purpose than to attract the insects that feed on it. It is a 'reward' to the insects for helping in pollination, and it also appears to stop insects from eating the all-important pollen. Many flowers, such as foxgloves, violets and rhododendrons, provide 'sign posts' to lead the insect into the flower. Some members of the orchid family have flowers that look like wasps or flies, and this deceives the appropriate insect into attempting to mate with the flower, so pollinating it. Sometimes plant and insect become totally dependent on each other. The yucca plant of Central America can only be pollinated by the yucca moth. The moth lays its eggs only in the yucca flower and caterpillars can only eat the yucca plant. In this example the plant and the moth are totally dependent upon each other. Extinction of either species would spell doom for the other. SOME COMMON TYPES OF FLOWERING PLANTS Annual - a plant that completes its life cycle from germination to death in less than one year (e.g. marigold, zinnia). Biennial - a plant that completes its life cycle from germination to death in more than one year but less than two. Flowering usually occurs in year two (e.g. foxglove, cabbage, carrot). Herb or herbaceous perennial - a plant lacking woody cells that dies back to the roots at the onset of frost or drought, but that produces new growth on the return of spring or rain (e.g. dock, daisies, dandelion). Woody perennial - a plant that takes longer than two years to complete its life cycle, and does not die back to its roots (e.g. trees, shrubs, roses). Bulb - an underground fleshy stem that functions as a food-storage organ. Many spring-flowering plants grow rapidly from bulbs (e.g. daffodil, tulip). Corm - a swollen underground stem-base with a similar shape and function as a bulb (e.g. crocus). Rhizome - a horizontally creeping stem (sometimes swollen) that allows the plant to spread over a very wide area (e.g. mint, iris, couch grass). Tuber - an underground swollen stem tip (e.g. potato) or root (e.g. dahlia) containing large reserves of food. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * ECOSYSTEMS * ARABLE FARMING * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture HlHHlH llHl$l$ ll$$l $$H$l $l$lH$ $H$ll $HHl$ HH$$l $l$$l $$l$l lH$H$ $HH$H llH$l $llHl$ ll$ll ll$l$l lHHll ll$ll$ lHlHl l$lH$ l$$ll lHll$l lH$Hl $ll$H llHll HH$$l H$$H$ Hll$l H$$ll ll$tP lHlHl $l$$l T,$$l$ lltll llHHl H$$HH $H$l$ T\,tl Ht$9l $l$lH lHl$$ $lHHl lH$l$l HlH$l$lH HlH$l H$Hll$H $llH$ H$$HH l$Hll lHlHH HlHll HxttL lH$$HlHH$ lHll$l $llHlHlHl lT$ll$ l$$lHlHl $llHl$ plPpl H$Hl$ H$$ll ll$ll H$H$H H$$lH HH$l$l l$l$H l$HH$ l$HH$ $$,($l l$llH$ $l$HlH Hl$lH Hl$$l$ H$t$$ HH$$H ll$$H Hl$lHlH$ HlHll ll$ll H$$Hl lHl$H l$lHl $l$ll H$$H$l ll$l$ lHl$HHl lHllH HH$l$ llHll lH$$l H$l$l H$$lHH H$l$H lHlHH H$l$l H$H$lHlH HH$H$ l$l$$H l$lHll H$$H$HH$ H$HH$H $llHl$ l$H$$ H$$H$ ll$l$$ HlHl$$ HHl$ll$l$ llHt$ $$l$l $HH$$ll HlH$H $H$H$ $HlHl $$H$l $$HH$H$ H$$H$ $l$l$ $H$Hl $Hll$ H$$Hl lH$HHl l$ll$H$l$ l$H$Hl $l$l$ H$lHH $$H$lH $Hl$lH l$lH$ $ll$H$l$l ll$l$ HlHlHlH l$ll$l H$Hl$lH $lHlHl HHl$l l$$Hl $H$$l $$l$H$ Hl$l$ H$lH$l lHll$lH HllHH l,ltP$ Hl$lH $ll$Hl$H H$HHl$$l HH$lHH H$lHl lHlHl $lH$lH $l$H$$l ll$ll Hll$l l$H$$ $$l$l lHllH l$lH$ $$llH$$ $l$Hll H$l$l ll$l$ lHlHl Hl$$H$ HH$$H$ HlHll lHH$HH HllH$l HHl$$H$ ll$l$ llH$ll$l $l$l$ llHll $lH$H$ $HlHll $lHl$ $l$$l $H$l$ l$l$l $HHllH$l H$$H$ $$lHl Hl$ll lHl$l$ l$l$Hl l$H$$l$ H$H$$ HlHH$ l$Hll HlHllH$ lH$l$H $l$H$l$ $Hl$$ll $$H$$ lHllH ll$llH $HH$H lHll$l lHlHl ll$l$ lH$l$ lH$l$ ll$$l l$H$H $llHlH H$HH$ $HlHll ll$ll$H HlHll$ Hl$lH$$H l$Hll$$ H$H$l lHllHHlH $l$H$ $llHlHHllH H$$HH ll$ll ll$lH $lHll l$H$l $$l$l HlH$$H $l$lHll Hl$l$ $HHlH$$ll l$lHllHll $lHHll H$lH$ llHll HllHll $HH$l $$H$$ HlH$ll lHHlH ll,PH l$llH$ $Hl$H Hl$ll llHll ll$ll lHl$$ HlHllH lHl$$ HlHll H$lH; $lHlHl $H$l$lHl $H$ll llHlH p122-1 ftsTitleOverride Primitive Animals (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Fan worms are sedentary paddle worms that feed by extending their crowns of tentacles into water currents to catch plankton. They withdraw rapidly into their chalky protective tubes if threatened. Primitive Animals (1 of 5) One of the most important events in the evolution of life on Earth was the development of multicellular organisms - ranging from simple worms to complex insects and squids - from unicellular animal-like protoctists. Most groups of primitive multicellular invertebrates are found in very old fossil-bearing rocks, so it is clear that this major breakthrough occurred at least 600 million years ago. The similarity in mineral composition of animal body fluids and sea water indicates that all groups of primitive animals arose in the sea. One of these groups (the echinoderms) is of particular interest in that they share a common ancestor with the chordates, from which all vertebrates - including man - evolved. Worms All flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are simple in construction and characterized by a blind-ending gut. The free-living turbellarians (class Turbellaria) are small, flattened, leaf-like worms found in aquatic and damp terrestrial habitats, where they have a scavenging or predatory way of life. The trematodes (Trematoda), which include the flukes, are external and internal parasitic flat- worms, with special attachment suckers and a complex life history involving at least two hosts. One trematode is responsible for the debilitating disease Schistosomiasis. The cestodes (Cestoda), which include tapeworms, are ribbon-like gut parasites, with a complex hooked head for attachment to their host. The nematodes (phylum Nematoda) - roundworms, eelworms, threadworms and hookworms - are found in soil and in both fresh and salt water. They are important crop pests, causing damage both by consumption of plant tissue and by facilitating the entry of viruses and other diseases into plants. Many have become parasitic in animals, and hookworms are thought to be among the most important causes of human illness. Nematodes are responsible for elephantiasis and other diseases. Annelid (or segmented) worms (phylum Annelida) have long thin bodies with distinct head and tail ends. The body is made up of a series of separate segments, usually having external hair-like protrusions called chaetae. Internally, an extensive body cavity separating the gut from the body wall is a feature distinguishing them from other worms. Of the three classes of annelids, the marine paddle worms (Polychaeta) are the oldest and most diverse. Characterized by a pair of limbs on each segment, most live in or on the sea bed, feeding on all kinds of material. Mobile predatory and scavenging worms have sensory tentacles and retractable jaws, while sedentary forms, such as fan worms, depend mainly on floating particles. The earthworms and their freshwater relatives (class Oligochaeta) burrow their way through earth, feeding on decaying vegetable matter. They are long thin worms without external structures except retractable chaetae - used as anchors in burrowing - and a reproductive structure (the clitellum). Earthworms are of considerable economic importance because of their role in recycling nutrients in the soil. The most advanced annelids are the leeches (class Hirudinea). They are either predatory or externally parasitic bloodsuckers, and have developed suckers at each end of the body. They do not crawl like other worms, but have adopted a looping method of movement. Parasitic leeches have saliva containing an anaesthetic to prevent detection and an anticoagulant so that blood remains fluid and is easily digested. Except for paddleworms, which are sexually differentiated, all worms are hermaphrodite - every individual has both male and female reproductive organs. Larvae are free-swimming and frequently multiply asexually. xually. * CORAL AND CORAL ISLANDS * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 8UU]1 y1T,U ,(P$2 PH]qP y\x1T -P(,$ $,M,x P\,t8 axx]l x,xTx ,0T-T0, F]Tt0 LTT0,L,T x0,TP U,T-T00 TTPxP0PT0 TTxPxTT ]\TT]j xTtTxx0 t0tTx TT,TT t]TTP,0 T0x8x0 \T0T,L xx0T\ x,L,T 0$1xTtx ,(t0P, 0P,0P P(P,1 T,L,, 0x,PP TxPT, ,LTP0t ,,TTUT @P(t\LPx xTP,t (T0P0T` PTPPx P1y,L1 $0P0H89,T PtTxtT b]9T00, $x0$,8 0T]]\ 0,x$Tt ($P$U PL,p,, T$,$,LP t)P)U,p ,xPTUP0 $xy,UTxPU aP9:T 0T]TT]] -pUt1u TttQL lPtHPp H,LH,LP PUxxT$ LP,$Ua P($t( P$t(t TTH,xP $PMPP ,L0t$ p,p,$x U\xlPTPL PxUxL l$$PxU UtTP( 1xTxT TU8,x, xTH$,H 9H1txt ,\H,px >$,TT P,t,$ THPP$0PP\ $0$H,lT LTT]$ P,$0- $pPy\ t$t0y \y\lT ltlPp ,$TP- l$tl, ,$,$(P t$t(\ $t$P,p $,$tP PtTPTP $H$,$HHTt HHPtL tH$$P $H$t]H, ltPLPt tLlt(H PtLltp, Tx,p,tpt$l tpPPL tHPLlx] $tpPtp tPL$$P tLPpP PtltP ,$,H,H,$ PHPt( L$$,t$$ Ppyt$ (tLt,L lltH$ LlP$l HQttLlP ,$P(t( $,tp9 ltPpt HPutT t(tPpPtPP x,$t,x ,y]]0y $t(P$ PT,,P L,lPL PPLtH, $P(l,t (Q-$UPM 0P,0,TU x0U0P0 xltHP Hlltl ,HPttl ,,$xP $,H,t Pt,tL $H$PP $,P,P,t ltH$P $$H,l PpPPy, tl,HP$ t(PH,P$ P$0t( HP$Pp,Lt,L $0QTTP P$,lP H,pPHPpPHP tPL,H$ $,,Pl$I ,$,H$,L ,p,lPH ,$$,pH,tT lHPHlP HPl,llPp LxtTt ,pxPP H$$Pl H,ltH pP,pPP $HPH, tp,Tx P$PtL$ tp,p$l$H HPptp $,p,t(t$ $,t$H $Pp$, PltLttP $tt$l $PpHT PLHP$t$l xtptLt,l,, t$,pt PlP$$, t$PH- lP$,$ tl,HP ,$,pH PLP,HH HtpPtHP t$PP(t$tH ,H$p$t$-p PtPtH, Ht(QP $$up% ]$$P$ $HPtH PHPtLt P$Tt$l t,$Pt( PUtPp,p $P,LPH PLtT$P(Pp tHPtM$y t($t$Q PP(PLU2 t$P,P $,t$xl PLP,,ty, Tx,H$, P$$p$ Ppt,H ,LPLH $PLHH t(t,PL,P $H,Ht tPPp, ,LH,$ (lt$H ,$P$$, $tH,p, t$P$, PPtx, $,$,H $HP$,l $H,$t$ $$tpP$ t$,l, l$LtH ($t,$P tLPPL$, HTllP$ $P$HP PtTtpPpPH t(P(P$ tHt$t HPL$$tH p,ptLtP PHHPHT $PplPp H,$,l (tLtLH ,LtPTPt HPHP$ $$P$tH,ll $,$,$ ,xH0H LtHP$ )P=,T T-T0P Q810- p122-2 ftsTitleOverride Primitive Animals (page 2) ftsTitle Many sea slugs have conspicuous warning coloration, to signal to would-be predators that they are poisonous and best left alone. In this sea slug (Chromodoris purpurea) the protrusions at the rear end are branched respiratory gills; those at the front are sensory tentacles. Primitive Animals (2 of 5) Mollusks Mollusks (phylum Mollusca) make up a highly varied group of unsegmented animals. Classic mollusk characteristics include a broad locomotory foot, a protective shell, a tongue-like feeding organ (radula), and a special respiratory gill (ctenidium). Although some or all of these characteristics are found in all Mollusks, each class has specialized very differently. Some Mollusks are sexually differentiated, while others are hermaphrodite. Aquatic forms have a free-swimming larva. Gastropods (class Gastropoda) - land and sea snails and slugs - form the largest group of Mollusks and are the most diverse in feeding habit. All gastropods have a foot for walking or swimming and a radula, and most also have an external shell. The radula is a broad tongue in limpets, with iron-hardened teeth to rasp rocks, while in carnivores it has sharp pointed teeth. In the specialized cone shells it is modified into a single harpoon-like weapon armed with a poison gland. Sea slugs are predatory gastropods, which lack shells and are frequently brightly colored. Some species transfer to their own backs the stinging cells of the cnidarians upon which they feed. Bivalves (class Bivalvia), which include cockles, mussels, oysters and clams, are essentially living filter pumps. Enclosed within the two-valved shell are massive gills covered with whip-like projections called cilia. The gills pump water through themselves and sieve particles from the water. Most bivalves have a large foot for burrowing into sand or mud, while others glue themselves to rocks. Many are prime targets for predators such as starfish and can use the foot to spring away from their assailants. Giant clams - like corals - have a symbiotic relationship with a certain alga and obtain food from the alga's excess productivity. Such clams may grow to 1 m (39 in) in length - the largest of all living bivalves. valves. valves. * CORAL AND CORAL ISLANDS * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture H0HP(, P(xTy xxyxy\y yPxtTxPp$H H,LPH$HPLP yPyy,H, H$PHPP tyt0yxy0PU yPtL$ PH,HP TtTtUxUxPQ PLPLHPHH,p xQx,p, P(P(P $P$9T ,l,p,H$H,p UTxtu1,p-( ,pHt(P yPLTPp xyTPP H,H,lH$ PxtPx TyyPp, TtQTt TtTt($P ,),LHQ( $(THtLPtL H,,$$PL,M, P(P$t(PH LPLTPp UuTPH,( ,TH-p,M,L$ ,pTPQPLP P(Q(, ,p,tQTL, ,qTP(tPLT TxTt( P,x$,$ $xt0t,(ttx t$,$0uT$ ,QMtT PL0t( PLP$l $,$,$t( mTtxQpUt $P$P$H x,u0, H,q]x $,L$,$$ pQp,P($ xPQPQM $$,$, Ux,H$t ,$-(P PpUtp, uPLx-t( tUP-t xTQpPU $$,$$ ,yPQPMP,L Ux,L$P uPU,t),t yt-tMx1tL- $-$$, 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$,$$PLQ, -py,Q$ (Q,(QT HuHlP $$,$$ -,L-P$$, lumHI ,$0$,L,H,( $P($,$H,L Hl$H$ $HP($,H P$$,LH,H P,p,Lt ,pPL$ HH$$H $H$$tP $PPL, ,(tH,t($$ $,HH,$P 0ttTtq,$ ,t(PPL,3 H,P,tPtP 1l-t(t (,P(2 PP,L, ,H,pxxUH yPUTU,(PL, xxQTy,Q, xtUxP TyxuTt TUPUT ,yTTUx x-x1P l$P$$, t(H$,H, $PHPxx HtPtx, xPp,l ,t-tUt(U $,MxTTH,]l $,p$PQ $$lHH $$H,$$,, HHl$l$ TQ$1t, ,H$$,($$H, 1$$,H,$H H,HPMP$PL $$H$H$ t(P-LH, H$$H$ lHlHl $H$HH H,$$,$, Lt$H,(P$ Hl$HH$ Ttt,pPHH $lHl$H $$,LP HH$Hl UtPLPH,lHP llHlH pt0t(,$,$ $lHl$ ptP$HP$$ $-H0l P0PH$PH $$lPH tptp, tPp,l$ Pltll PxQL, tLtPL LP($$ lPH,H PPpHPH PxxH$ Ht,$, tUtLUQPP$ ,UtMP(uT UtTtLPP $$,)$ l,MH-, p-P(t m,q,MPQ $(,M,u tQ$t( QPt)t ,$,QPM,M P,qP)y,Q $,P%LT- -MuPyPLQ Q(u,-u yyxy,q,y $$-(t- U$H%m %H%H$Q QqPyQy,1P qUt1p lmllI )tQL-L Q(Q-P $H$HH$ l$$,$P$Q P$,QP %IuQ% -PylU $-pPU QPuUx $u,QLut( M,t)t ,yQyU H$,$Q ,$PPLux- P,(,$ PP(tuPpy $$PH,L-pQx q,yPL-tup ,q,tUP u(u,HUxQ qQyuTupQLP HPPMQTyUyP ,$,$$ t%Ht(up-u TupUuT -yx-y ,$,p-tUtQx 0uQxyUxy$ Q1tuy $,$PH1tPLP QPqxyT ,uUyPyUUPu PMPuTuUyy1 PLPLPP Q,p-p xUyx1t lPyPptLHt$ -t,Mt( Qp%t-qTy ,ltpPtx PLttpPpt, uyPyQxPpQ 1tHxP xuPpt $P(t(u] ,pPPL, tLtLy p122-3 ftsTitleOverride Primitive Animals (page 3) ftsTitle A cuttlefish (Sepia latimana) moving over a coral reef. Once detected by the large eyes, small fish and crustaceans are seized by two long tentacles, gripped by eight short tentacles around the mouth, and then bitten by the powerful beak. Cuttlefish can change their coloration almost instantly, different patterns being used in sexual display, for concealment or to intimidate. Primitive Animals (3 of 5) The cephalopods (class Cephalopoda), which include squids, cuttlefish, octopuses and the nautilus, are highly specialized predators. They have well-developed sensory faculties and the ability to change color instantly. They are also capable of versatile and rapid movement, and - with their complex brains - even possess powers of learning and memory. Their tentacles have developed from the modified foot, and in the mouth behind the beak is found a classic mollusk radula. The giant squids, which live in deep water and are rarely seen, are the largest invertebrates known, with bodies in excess of 5 m (16 ft) in length. Despite their sophistication, present-day cephalopods are only the remnant of a previously superabundant group, which in the Cretaceous period (135-65 million years ago) included a vast array of ammonites and belemnites. Competition with fish has since led to a reduction in their numbers. umbers. * CORAL AND CORAL ISLANDS * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 0U0T9 UjU?i T0x]U9 0e$80 xP$,P P9U,a \ya]0^ P$$,d `$LHH\ 0xPPH ]V=\, ]\1x9 $xPLP l-$]l LIU]U pP$P$ b$1ta ,P(PP L,x,t 0PTP? PP$ll T0TP8H ,L$$-L$1$ Q(9$1 ,xTTH0$ \$$0t$x,p ,T,L$ x0$T$ 1U^3bP (xHPx P(H0T ,TxPPl ,TP(PH 8tp$, 9x ] P(P$P,0 P$x,P -1U:] $UH$$ ,yab^ k1^ ]U >]0^:e 91PbZ 1U810 1P-11]9 H$$HH 9->beR1 ,$P-H $$,l$t U1]0] =]]\U] $$,$$ \$P$t 9101\ y9T^T $$tLP $P(P($ R&,L$,P(H: 19]]\1] $P$,$ H$HHlHP$Hl H$,H,HH HlPP$l $U$$l$ $$t$$H] l,LHT P)P,t $$zbH$$H,$ t,U(t $llHH, yTx,PL P,(t,PL l$HH,llHHP (H$$H Pt(tL PLPPp,-,P tl$H$ ltlP$ $HH$H $$tH, UP(Qt0t HlPH$ l$H$HH PH,$l HH$lPPl$,H H,t$P $,H$$ lH$lH tLPTTU,P $tH$P$$H $$P$tMH] $,L$$ H$HPH$H,$ 9u0tp Pt$$HH,$ HlHlHl$H $$l$$ $l$llHH l,lHl H$HH$ $llHl l$H$$H $l$lH lHlHH tLtt$Q lHltl ltLt] M$$H$H $H$H$HH $H$$H H$$P$H ll$lHP $tH$$H$H$ P$H$Htl$HH $$P$H H$P$HH$ H$H$l$ $$H$$H$H H$H$lPl $lHt$ $$,$$HUt $$,$P ,L,-, Hl$Hl$t$ $$,-,L$( H$H$H$tl l$H,H$l H$lHl ltH$$ PH,Hl HH$H$H $l$$PH xH$l, $lHH$lH,l ,$,l, PH,$$ $,$,Hl t(lHP H,ltH $PH,$ P)P$, HPpQtP M,0T, lu,PL HTPPL, $$8$, $$,$$ Py-$y 1t,PL $,L$$P UP-xUx ,H1HtQ H$,$,$ ($$H, P$$,$, $tTPPt tLPL,x]T P$-t( P$$,$, 1xy0$ 9x1U8 p122-4 ftsTitleOverride Primitive Animals (page 4) ftsTitle A jellyfish (Cotylorhiza tuberculata) swims in the upper waters of the sea by muscular movements of the bell, feeding on tiny planktonic organisms. The fish hiding beneath the bell derive protection and probably food from the association. Primitive Animals (4 of 5) Cnidarians Although simple in structure, cnidarians (phylum Cnidaria) form the largest living structures on Earth - the coral barrier reefs of Australia and Belize. All cnidarians have a simple two-layered contractible body wall surrounding a central gut with a single opening. Tentacles bearing stinging cells surround the mouth in corals and sea anemones (class Anthozoa), and form a fringe to the bell of jellyfish (Scyphozoa). Jellyfish are given strength by the jelly between the two cell layers, while corals lay down a rigid basal skeleton, and the related sea whips a skeleton of horny material. Cnidarians are mostly predatory, capturing prey by means of the tentacles and the batteries of gripping and stinging cells these carry. The stinging cells touch prey and turn inside out, penetrating the tissues and injecting a neurotoxin - lethal even to humans in the case of some jellyfish. Corals obtain nutrients from symbiosis with an alga, making use of the surplus products of photosynthesis and providing the algal cells with waste nitrogen. Many cnidarians exhibit alternation of generations. A jellyfish stage (called a medusa), at which the animal is free-swimming and reproduces sexually, leads to a sedentary stage (a polyp) from which medusae are produced asexually. Sea anemones, corals and hydroids spend most of their lives as polyps, singly or in colonies, whereas jellyfish spend almost all their lives as medusae, swimming by means of pulsations of the bell, with a very brief polyp phase. phase. * CORAL AND CORAL ISLANDS * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture lI]zIy ^zQ$8y]$ yp1x9 Ml$%$P R%m2lRMImQ %I$%l] Ut(PT 1H,$- (PT,P, %uImH -,$HT ^U,t$ $-$PI %Q$%l 0yPP1t,T, Hbt1RL$Vu lmIQH% QL$$,M Pu$QL0QRQ 1H$,P $:vQHHH$, QL%H% lHPUP, $$,L,t $$t$P($, $Tl,$ t,PH,P$ $QT$$ $$Pp,t $,pPU, TtpTx HxH,( $P%P$, TTPtU $$t(tp HPPx,P xPUP$ at$P, $$P($a $x-yl $PpPpT$ HTx0Pxu ,LH,$$1PP($ P(x,pPLP, $$$tL$ ,xPxx 0tLxTP0 tTP\LP,L, xt,H- t(PL, 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H,HP(P($PH,H,$, P$,P(PHtH (P(HH,$,P$, $P$,H L$$tH$,H,$ tltHPLHt($ p122-5 ftsTitleOverride Primitive Animals (page 5) ftsTitle Common starfish feeding on a dead clam. Live clams are also preyed on, the two valves of their shell being pried apart by the starfish's tube feet. Primitive Animals (5 of 5) Echinoderms Echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata) are characterized as a group by their five-part symmetry, internal skeleton and tube feet, but are otherwise very different. Representatives are found in all marine habitats, from the shallowest waters to the deepest abyssal depths. Echinoderms are sexually differentiated and have free-swimming larvae. Echinoderms are essentially very simple animals, without some of the organ systems that characterize more complex groups. Yet they are among the most successful of marine animals, and share certain structural and developmental features with vertebrates. Although evolving in very different ways, several obscure groups of marine invertebrates - hemichordates (acorn worms), ascidians (sea squirts) and cephalochordates (lancelets) - are thought to have developed from a single ancestral stock; and it is from this same stock that echinoderms and chordates (the group to which vertebrates belong) are believed to have evolved. For this reason the echinoderms and these other primitive animals have been seen by some as link groups between invertebrates and vertebrates. Sea lilies (class Crinoidea) are the most primitive echinoderms. Two groups exist today - sedentary stalked sea lilies found exclusively in deep water, and free-living mobile species, which lack a stalk and are found principally in shallow water. Both feed in the same way, by sieving particles from passing currents with their upward-pointing tube feet. As a large surface area is required for effective filter-feeding, sea lilies have 10, 20 or 40 arms, creating a huge crown, or calyx. Sea urchins (class Echinoidea) are globular, oval or disc-shaped creatures, densely covered with spines - poisonous in some species - and other external structures based on an underlying shell composed largely of calcium carbonate. Some are grazing herbivores, living on hard rocky surfaces, with large spines used in locomotion and defense. Others, with short spines used for burrowing, live in sand and feed on organic debris. The tube feet, arranged in five rows around the shell, are variously used for movement, attachment and sensory perception. Starfish or sea stars (class Asteroidea) have five hollow arms linked to a central disc. Small spines cover the upper surface, while the arm edges are often set with large defensive plates. Most of the tube feet, arranged in five rows and surrounding the central mouth, are used for locomotion and grasping prey, but those near the arm tips are sensory. Starfish are mostly scavengers or predators, and frequently feed on clams. The gut may be turned inside out over prey, and digestion may take place outside the body. In this way the crown-of-thorns starfish eats large quantities of coral, causing extensive damage to reefs. Brittle stars or serpent stars (class Ophiuroidea) - so called because of their readiness to cast off arms and regrow them - are thin-armed, highly mobile animals with a compact central disc. Found in all marine habitats, often in huge numbers, they are mostly filter-feeders or scavengers. Sea cucumbers (class Holothuroidea) are worm-like echinoderms that have reduced the internal skeleton to a vestige and become soft and extremely flexible. Found in all marine habitats, they use enlarged branched tube feet around the mouth for feeding, either spreading them out on a surface to pick up particles or extending them in a water current to intercept food. * CORAL AND CORAL ISLANDS * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * INFECTIOUS DISEASES Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture P($,$ t$lHH TPHP$$ L,tx,P(0P $,p$$ L,1$, $,$$,P $HPt( $,$,P \t$HP T,T,H ]HP$P( $P,lxx TxH,L, lxxH,L HHPpPP $$H$t$ PLPTP$ ,tTPL lxPxT PUT,P ,l,$P t,,L$, PL,,$ $T,tT $$,L$Tx $$HTy P(t]$ $,$$, $$t$t Q\M,x UT,x$H u(ux- xT$LP ,H,t$ P0,yTt ,PP$, ,HtT$ ,LPP( $HTPP $Pt$$ x,,P),,p,, tx,L, PPpPLx ,,LPt t,,tL -PLtP PPL,pxt HPP(P t$,,M, yx0xy LPpPtH Tu]$Pt t$$Tx, ,lx$,t1 00xPx,$ Pt(tL $(,P$t, $,MTx,lP (,LPtTP H,M0tx PQTP$,p lt$H,,$ HtLP($ $,t0$ P$$PxU tPxPx $$,$, HP=xH PH0P, $,$,$ ,P(PPp PPLl$ $$lP$ 0t8tU $,lPtH P$lPH tLlttTx, $$,p, $PLPtHH,$6 pPtL, $$P($P ,L,(l, xtTtx H,tPpT $$,PJ $HH,l Ht$,$ H$PLPl $,$,t $,$P,pt$ $,yTy $$,$$O $$,lT (Pt$l yTy]tp HP$,L P($tLt L,,tLP Pt(,(H0PPp H$lPP ,L$,lP ,$t(PLtL HH,P(l l$H,$ $0$t(t $$PLP- P($t, pPt0y, Ptp,x PTt1x H$PxtPH Ht(,P ,Lt$x tTH,( $$,P( ,$tL$P H,(tt( (PtLtPL, $$,LP ,$,$t xP$t( $P(,$,L P(P(P ,UPLt HPHtPL ,HP$Py P(tL, $P(tp,P($t $,P(P,L,H, $PpH, t($P$,P PLPH, $PLPP(t $,L,P lP$t, tHPtt P(Pt(; 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They also have eyes on stalks and two pairs of antennae. Secretive and nocturnal creatures, lobsters scavenge the seabed and eat dead fish. They spend most of their time concealed under rocks. Arthropods 1. Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (1 of 5) Arthropods are by far the most diverse and successful of all invertebrates, with close to two million species recognized. All the major groups of the phylum Arthropoda - crustaceans, myriapods, arachnids and insects - share certain fundamental features that have contributed significantly to their success. Their bodies are segmented, with a strong external skeleton (exoskeleton) and jointed limbs. The skeleton is formed by a protective layer known as the cuticle, which consists largely of a protein called chitin and is often hardened with calcium carbonate. The cuticle is impermeable and mostly rigid, but joints allow flexibility, and thin areas are necessary for respiration and sensory perception. The skeleton allows the development of hollow jointed limbs, and muscles attached to either side of joints give arthropod limbs versatility and rapidity of movement. Primitive forms, including some modern-day crustaceans, have a series of many similar limbs down the body, but in advanced forms, such as insects and spiders, limbs are reduced in number and each pair may have a different structure and function. Head limbs are adapted for sensory perception, defense and food handling; thorax limbs for walking and swimming; and abdominal limbs for respiratory and reproductive functions, such as holding eggs or gripping a partner during reproduction. Most arthropods have large eyes. Insects and crustaceans have compound eyes made up of individual light-sensing components whose combined input to the brain produces a mosaic-like image. Receptors sensitive to chemical stimuli (chemoreceptors), as in taste or smell, and vibration receptors are found all over the body, but are concentrated on the antennae and head. * INSECTS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1x0,TQx,TPyTPUxyPTPuxT TxtyTxPyttMx,U, y,0Q,U0 U]0]0]\ Tx1TUTPyPtxQT,1xU ]y,TUT1U1P1T1U,1 1-T1TU0y1U01 ,PUxt0x,LUxt,TTyTuTTxUt,PTytUtTtyTuL Q0-T1,U yTUT0 ,10UT 1x]U8U0]T9 UU,TUxPT,0Q ]xU0U,-x1x1P10 11T1yTy0U1, U0y0y01QP- y,,L,qx Ut,PP xTy,,(P,TP-L,TUxyTx,yxPx ]x,1, ,y,PPM,P UP,(tUx,10U,T11 T1U0U] \]8U90 UTTUP Tyx0T,1x ]y1yUyUTyUT,UTU0 UUTUy1U0U1Ty U,,PL L$,LTxtTxQxu U1P,U0Q, ,1T,,xT UxyTxTyUT,L P(TUP0U010U0U Q010TU ]1T]]08]\ UxUTUtyTyTxy1 (U01T1yT yxUTUU1 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1T1T1-0 ,1]1T1T10U U1T101U0U01U0U0U10U0]Y99T90U11- T1T101U10U1 -T19U1T181U0U10 0U119U]U1U101T511 U1T10U 11T1T9UU0]]U0U1U1\1]]9]01T1U10 10U1T1 P1T10 9U9U101T1018y91] 1U919TU011 -11T]Y]U1 ]T10U \U81U1U0U9U91U09 90U1T111 ]0U0]U01U0]1 1T1T91 19]09U99U10 9U11U 9U01U01T0 1111]]U1\1U991U9 1T191] ]11U0U101]]U010U0 18U1\19T91]1]1 9U010U0U10U1T11T1U19]9U09U9U9U19U19U1T919 ]T9-0U0110U1T91T1199]1 9Y9T19U9111] 1]9U1UU1-0U0U0111U10U0U119U9U19T11]19U90]1]191 1]1UT10U1U111]1T11U9U9] T11T1T1111 U101]9U911\19T19 99U9]19]]19 111U01U10]1 1]1U199U81U991U9]99 U1U]1U81110]1U91]9]9 911U9 1T1]11U19191 U9U1U1T91]11 U1]1]19U91919U1 9U1919 ]]1]19 U19U9U19 9]1]1 p124-2 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 1: Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (page 2) ftsTitle Crabs from the Grapsidae family in the Galapagos Islands. The claws of crabs are important feeding tools although they also function as sex symbols. Males often have one claw much enlarged and strongly marked, which can be used to threaten a rival or to impress a mate. Arthropods 1. Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (2 of 5) Crustaceans Crustaceans - the 'insects of the sea' - form a very varied group of arthropods and are extremely abundant throughout the sea. The freshwater species, though numerous, suffer competition from insects and are less abundant. A very few - wood lice and the land crabs - have successfully adapted to life on land. The subphylum Crustacea contains some 42,000 species and is divided into 10 classes. The most important of these are Branchiopoda (fairy shrimps); Copepoda (copepods); Cirripedia (barnacles); Decapoda (crabs, shrimps and prawns); Amphipoda (sand hoppers); and Isopoda (woodlice). The elongated bodies of crustaceans have many segments, each bearing a pair of limbs, and are clearly divided into a head/thorax region and a tail or abdomen. The head/thorax is often covered by a protective shell plate (the carapace). In primitive forms the head segments, bearing the antennae and mouth parts, are followed by a series of similar limbs, often fringed with hairs for food sifting. In more advanced forms the various limbs differ in function and structure - thorax limbs being used for walking and swimming, abdominal limbs usually for respiratory purposes and in reproduction. The front limbs of some crustaceans are adapted as claws, for food capture and defense. Most crustaceans are unisexual - male and female are distinct. All crustaceans have the same basic larva - the nauplius - but later stages may be different. Eventually a final molt transforms the larva to a juvenile. Barnacles are highly modified for feeding on marine phytoplankton (tiny planktonic plants). As larvae they resemble other crustaceans, but they later settle on a carefully chosen surface, usually close to other members of the same species, and attach themselves by means of head glands. The animal secretes a protective shell complete with closing lid, from which the thorax limbs, fringed with hairs, are protruded to catch plankton. The success of this way of life can be judged on any rocky seashore. * INSECTS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -1V^ 1-11- 11-1- -11yUy^ -1-1-U 1--1U :V11- 11--1 -1-1-- 2:^_:V2U --1-1 ^_:: 1-11U ^:2:V:_ ::^21 U1:^: ,1-11 1V2V1 V2:_: --11U -1-11U :^2:2 -U11- 11-1- ^^: :2:: ^11-1 1-1-1 11--1- c :_:2 V:V: 11-1U- V2V2^; 11U11- -1U11 -1-1U1U1U1 :_2V:^:?b 1-11-- 1-11- :: : : c :^2:_: ^^2V2:V2U p-pu)-PU ^^2^2 ^::2^2 ;::;^ -11-11 -11-1 k k c c ?f? :V:^:> c -1Y1-- -11yU 1U1U1 -1U1U1- c c c 11-1- --11U c c c : _^_b; 1--11 11-11 1Y1-, k c c :^::; ;:^:_: > --1-1 -,LQpuM ?^_:_:_ u)t-tMu 1U11U :? ^ : ^?^_> :22V: ,1yPU 1--11- 11UU1 ? bg > ? > c c c b; ^^2^221 6Y2:2Y $-(QUyU :U2V2^: -11-1-1 11U11 c > ^ : c c --11- c c -11U1 : :^: $-qtPmP uUtMu,uT -1U11 1-11U QxyTy --0-- y]U1-- y,yUu -1-1U]1 11U1- 2U2^11 --1-1 -11-- --11] 11U11 1-11U :VY21 -11-1 -1-1-1U 1U-0U 121U1 Ut)PU 1-11U1 1--1- QP)tQ -11U1 11-1U 1-1U, -1--11 1-1-1 1-1-11 U11-- 1--1- 1--11- -1--1 U-U11 11-11 --1U1Z ,-yPq,Q( up-Q01yU QLyQxQL-1T -11V: b ^^2 (PQpu,QUU 1-1U1 1-1-1 11-11 -1--1 U11-1- 11U11- -11--11 U11U2 --11U1 -11-1 ^21-- UU1-1 1U1-- 11--11 1-11^ -1U1- QQy,M,-y- --11- 11U11 --11- -11U1-- -1-11 1-112 --11- -1-11 1--12 -11U11 -1-U11 -11U: -1-11 11-11 ^ ^:;^2 -2V:V1 11-1- ^:11U2- -11-11 fc ^ ^_Y -1YU1 1-11- 11U1- --MQ)T U-0u-1-1 U-LUy 11-11 12:V1 c :^2 ZU1-- y-qTy U2^2Y2 -11-- QqyPU uLQ$,1- 1U2^2- -1U1U y-1U1- 11-- QUUyQy Uu0u1y :U1-- -xuq0QPy Uu1tQP) 11U1-- -yPyQ QQ)P, y1--1 P-M,Q)tU UtM11 u,)Q,- 1--11Q -11-,QU QLQ1), 11-UTu- UQ1M, 1)--L] Q-L1- -1--Y )Q1P, --11-11 :VY1211 uq-,- b b b y,--Pq :YV1- 11V^ 1-11- LQ-t)P 1-12: --2YV U::1U1 1-11U1 ),-)t Pqu($ }1U--Q,L% U1-12U yyUQ)t --1^^ U1yUy 1U11)1 --11- V:V::^ c^11Uy :^211U ^212^ c^:V V12^: b^2: :_:2^ ^^:^^ 1U1V1 b : -11-- 11-1- PqQMU- ::V:_ 11^1-1--1 22Y2:V:: c -1V: g :^:_ 1U1U1 UuUP1-y1 1V21-1 :1-11 : k 11-Y^^11 1: ? 1--1U1 :^:^2U 11U1U cB_c ? kcgc kc C ? 1-1-1- ^ ?Cc? kb u$-Lu,M ?cCc? ^? 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These amphibious crustaceans are important scavengers on rocky shores throughout the world. Arthropods 1. Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (3 of 5) Copepods are small crustaceans of immense importance in the economy of the sea. They are the principal grazers of marine phytoplankton, and are themselves the food of commercially important fish such as herring. Shrimp-like crustaceans called krill, which feed in a similar way to copepods, form the main food source of the whales of the southern oceans. Decline in whale populations has led to a huge build-up of these crustaceans, which are now harvested directly by man as food for domestic animals and as fertilizer. The fairy (or brine) shrimps live in temporary pools where they escape predation. They are classic primitive crustaceans, with rows of similar limbs used for movement and feeding, and they feed by sieving particles from the water. Water fleas are more advanced forms common in fresh water. The group known as the decapods - so called because they have 10 walking legs - includes most of the many commercially important crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters, shrimps and prawns. It is the most numerous crustacean group with around 10 000 species, and includes the largest crustacean - the giant spider crab, which commonly has a claw span of around 2.5 m (8 ft). Most are scavengers or predators, but the fiddler crabs feed on organic debris. The claw and leg structure of crabs is often a clue to their way of life. Those that feed on mollusks are slow-moving and heavily armored, using their strong claws to crack shells. 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As is the case with most arthropods, male and female millipedes are sexually distinct, and copulation is necessary for fertilization. Arthropods 1. Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (4 of 5) Myriapods There are four groups of myriapods, totaling some 10 000 species. Their principal characteristic is a body composed of a head and a long trunk with many leg-bearing segments. The various groups are probably not closely related, however, and only two groups are of significance. Centipedes (class Chilopoda) are secretive predatory animals found throughout the world in damp terrestrial habitats (beneath bark, logs, stones, etc.). They are confined to such habitats by their vulnerability to water loss in dry air. The head has large jaws concealed beneath the modified first pair of legs, which form poison fangs. Following this are 15 or so similar segments with strong walking legs. Nocturnal in habit, they are able to move very quickly, sensing their prey by means of chemoreceptors on the head, and killing with their poison fangs. Millipedes (class Diplopoda) are herbivorous scavengers found in similar habitats to centipedes. They appear to have two pairs of legs on each segment but in reality these are fused segments, which may number as many as a hundred. They move slowly over the ground, but their legs and movement pattern are suitable for burrowing. Rapid escape from predators is impossible, so millipedes have chemical defenses in the form of poisons and are heavily armored. * INSECTS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * PARASITISM AND SYMBIOSIS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 0y01y ]xUyT y1xy] l,PPL Ut-1xU 1t0y0 UyxyTx-x9 0Uyx]xyU1 TxQ(,L y0t]y 1yyUyx UTUUTy0 y0-U0 ]y0y]y 1xUUTy\y0 ,1y0yx Q0y0U ]xy1x]y UPT1y 0P(-P-xU x1y0y ]y0yU TUTUT y0yyP ,yU\y y]xy, 1xUyx1x y0y]y -TUTQ1 Q,U(, y]x1yU UxU,P1- Q]x1U P1t11yT x-U0y 1t-,x1yx Uxyx] yTyUx\U 1x]yT 1TUyx1 UxUTUy Q0TUUyTy \yyTy1x ,y1xx 0Ux1yT ,$1y\U yTy0y Ux1,0 UUT-P1P] 0,-Ux] P01PT 1xyTy t$$:u ,yTy9 UU0UyT1 P0UTUyU xT-UTQ10xU T-L0U0 x10Ux Ux9x10Q01y yTx-T]U tpPtTP\ $,P$8 TPMT] PT1TUxU Ux,-PUT 1xUxU Ty,y1 TTUTUxU -0yx,Q TQT11T-0-0 )P0U0QT \yyxUx1y,y t,MTt xTyTx yUTUT Uy0yyxUUTy P,xQx -L,,yU yP1xUU tUP]T yTy-x1yTy0 xy]yU QTUUTU UxUyx1y\y 8,u,y lyUy1 ]x]xUx 1Ty]x9 -,U01 yTy\yxy P1yT] TyTUyx1 UttLx -UUxU \yTyT ,pyPy xUTTyy TP]p9y 1TTUxy UyTQTUTU] 1Q,-T QTytT ,UUTU yUTUU Ux1x1x, yx1x1U 1UT]U0P Q1xy1 -pPxU 0QLPP QxxTy -xyUT TyxUxy] yxUx1yx 1]L1x PTy0y -0y0yUxU P-xPx PTUxP0U TUxy0yTyT] ]x1x1 1UTy,0yUx Ux]x- xUxy0y0u M0,Q0 U0UTt PQTtxU xUxUTT1 ]xUTTU, P(Q1TUUT Q,UTyT yTUTUy LQTUxy LxPUx -PUxUx Q0u1x]yxy )x1y]x Q0y,M,, x1xy0 \yTU]xy PUxUtyx ,LQxPy (upUt ,uPyT L,pUy ]Q0PU 0UTQT x1t1P Ty1y0y0yUx -x,UT y1t1x1x MPUPy ,LPtP P1x1P1 TUUTUU ,M,QTuTu ,)PPy PPyPx U1x-x1 U0U\yTy ,M,)0 y0yTyU P)\UT, $1t,p \yPU,1 tP,U]T PUxUyTyY 0QTQ, UT1y0y\ y1ty1x0, y,yTt2 t,uPyP Q,9tyx UPUtx 1PTxtU --(yYT -(Q0-0 x1x1Q UT1x1U, (Q(xxy P,u(t ,M,xP PTHyT x-yTyy0 T1x1T ,UTUUT yxTy, ,-,-, U0UTy ]TUxy HUt(y P-tMx 1x11y0 xy0y0yy \yTy1TUxUP (1T,L 010u0UU p1ty,y L,,yPp ,(tTy 1UUTU9 TyTyUx1 TyxUUTy1x1 P9P-U, x-PTy ,U0U,U0y t(tPp ,(Qxt Q0,tx -,U10U]y UT1TUTQTUy 0yUTy1 ,-,U, ,y1,U1,1T1 ,U1xU (PLtT ,L,Px $,QL1 -tpyPy ,MTtU Q9x0U0T UTU11x ,U,10y TU,-0P L1TUxy]y 8yUx1xy] TT1x1U1xy0 x1T1,U0y0U -p,tQLP L-t-xuL 1T1y, \y1x]yT Q0x1x x1xTyUT,-( -0yT1y ptTt? 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No more than 1 cm (2/5 in) long, jumping spiders are superbly equipped as predators. Provided with excellent sensory ability by their large simple eyes, they leap on prey from a distance, immobilizing it with their massive jaws. Arthropods 1. Crustaceans, Myriapods and Arachnids (5 of 5) Arachnids The arachnids (class Arachnida) - the largest group of arthropods after the insects, with over 60 000 species - include scorpions (order Xiphosura), ticks and mites (Acari), and spiders (Araneae). Scorpions were among the earliest terrestrial animals, appearing on land in the Carboniferous period (355 to 300 million years ago). Nocturnal and secretive, they hide under stones or logs by day, and are found in most warm habitats, including deserts. They detect prey with highly sensitive vibration and odor receptors. Waiting for their prey to move into range, they grip it with their massive claws and inject a paralyzing venom with the sting in their tail. The venom of some species may cause death in humans. They undertake elaborate courtship rituals culminating in fertilization of the female, who then broods the young. Ticks and mites are economically important as plant and animal parasites, as carriers of disease in both animals and humans, and as food pests. Mites are found in enormous numbers in all environments. Most ticks and mites are tiny - adult mites are often less than 1 mm (1/25 in) in length, although some ticks are larger. Characteristically, they have an oval body with four pairs of limbs, and a mouth part adapted for biting, sucking or sawing. Spiders are the most successful group of land-living arthropods - judged by numbers of species - after the insects. They are compact specialist predators, with a body clearly divided into two parts. The front section combining head and thorax bears four pairs of walking legs and two other pairs of limbs. One is a pair of hollow fangs; the other pair is leg-like in females, and a complicated reproductive structure in males. As many as eight large eyes may be seen at the front end. Spiders feed mainly on insects and have evolved an amazing variety of techniques for capturing their prey. Camouflaged crab spiders, for instance, sit in flowers and ambush visiting insects, while trapdoor spiders leave radiating silken trip lines and rush out from their burrow when an insect stumbles over one. Silk is used by many spiders to construct a variety of webs to catch different insects: orb webs slung across gaps catch flying insects, while sheet and hammock webs trap insects that crawl or hop onto them. Silk is a protein manufactured in the spider's body, expelled from several gland openings and spun into a multi-strand thread by structures called spinnerets on the abdomen. Spiders are often not particular about their prey, and as the female is usually larger, elaborate rituals are gone through by the male to avoid being eaten and to allow successful mating. 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]T]TT9x UT\UUP 1-T,1P1 0TTU0Q Q0T1P0Q p10-P0 TQ0UTy UxTytTP(P T0UxQ T1\T]TUTUT0,yTTTU] U0UTU0 T1y,x1t -P1xy0 yxyTyt 0y-,U1U, TUT\U\U000U09y0Ux 1x0y8y\ 0]xTUTU, -,,1,M,-,) 01x01T- L,-0Qx0xTU,P 0-L,-L,- ,x1xUxTyTy0t u1TTT,0P yT]x0xUT1T0x0x9T 0U00U0T ,U,-T0QxyUyTUt PUTTUtxyTxuT x9y1U,0$ TU\yT 0UTT0]TU8x- U00U0x1T, P)x0t1xUxUx0yx T,Q(P TU\T] 9x8y8xUT]x TUTT10T1, ,1P-0Q(1UTUx1 P,U,- t1xyPx0t 0UTUT]x]x9x8y\UT -0,0UTU01T- L0P)0Q,U,TUxU ,1P-(U, PP1PLTyTUPTP0P( Q00UT \x9x9 TU0U0 ,1x]T]U ]x]T]P,) 1T1T0U01T1x1,U-0Q0-TUPxUT1 M,L1P) u0uTt0P1t 0U\U]y]T] 1x]x0$ ,U0U\U x1x01x1T10P,0P)TTPUTUTQT-0U, )P,0Q,,-, )P,y0x,x1t1x1x0Q,T, 0-09UY 1TTU\ UUT0y\y ]x1TU, yTU0U0U0UTU0y1P x1P1x1x-P ,U,PTyPUTt1x1x1x U1TUU] T1U\U\]]T] 0y1x1Q p126-1 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 2: Insects (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Arthropods 2. Insects (1 of 5) Insects form by far the largest class of animals, accounting for over 80% of all animal species on Earth. There are more insect species than all other animal and plant species put together - well over a million species are recognized, with hundreds of new ones discovered each year. Insects are remarkable in many ways - for their diversity of form, for their dominance of land environments, for their complex social organization, for their ability (unique among invertebrates) to fly. They are also of immense economic importance to man - many insects are animal or plant pests, while others play a central role in crop pollination or in pest control. Adult insects are instantly recognizable as arthropods. As well as having the usual arthropod characteristics of exoskeleton and jointed limbs, the body is clearly divided into three parts. The head houses a large brain; within the thorax, there is a mass of muscles and associated respiratory structures; and the abdomen contains the organ systems responsible for much of digestion, excretion and reproduction. Most variation in insect structure is found in the form of the legs, the wings and the mouth parts, which are all carefully adapted for particular ways of life. Insects would suffer respiratory problems if they were any larger than they are. Although the African goliath beetle, for instance, may grow to as much as 20 cm (8 in), most insects are small, many species being less than 1 mm (1/25 in). Small size is indeed an advantage to insects, in that individuals are inconspicuous, can find hiding places easily, and can readily satisfy their food requirements. Classification and reproduction Two major groups of the class Insecta are recognized - winged insects (Pterygota) and wingless insects (Apterygota). The wingless insects, believed to be the most primitive surviving insects, fall into four orders, familiar examples being silverfish and springtails. There are 24 orders of winged insects, commonly divided by their method of development into the Exopterygota and Endopterygota. These orders are of varying size and importance, 85% of all species belonging to four orders: Coleoptera (beetles); Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths); Diptera (flies); and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants). Insects develop from egg to adult in two distinct ways. In exopterygote forms, such as cockroaches and grasshoppers, the young live in the same environment and hatch as nymphs - miniature adults without reproductive structures. If the insect is a winged form, wing buds are present and grow proportionately larger at each molt. The final molt, in which external reproductive structures appear, transforms the animal to a functional adult. The alternative method, found in endopterygote insects such as bees, butterflies and beetles, involves larval and pupal stages. * FLOWERING PLANTS (POLLINATION) * ARTHROPODS 1 * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread W,-,,- ,-,,-,-, ,-,-,-,-, -, &, W,',-, , ,,-,-, +-,-, V3PW2Q2Q ,,-,- 3PW3P3W V-WV3Q ,',, ,-, , VWQV3PWV Q2QV3PW,W , ,', W-,-, WW,W2QV3Q 2WW2QW2QV, -V-, ,- ,-, , + ,-, 3PW2QW3P 3VQ2QV-VW3 ,-&-& ,-,,',,W 3PW2QV3P 3VQ3PW-VQ3 ,,-, , ,,-& &-, , , ,', QV3PW3PW PW3P32WV-V ,, & &-& -& ,-, ,', ,,',& & -,-,',,-,, 3V3QW2QV -W2QVWQV-W ,',-,- -,& &,' ,-, ,- VQ3PW,WV 3WVQ2W-V,W -&-& ,- , ,-,', -,, ,& -,-,-+ W-VQ2WP3 Q2Q2QWV3WQ -,-,- 44XYX44 V,WV3V-W V-V-VW- & &-,, ,-, ,- -,-,-+ -WV-WQ +WW, , ,-&, ,-,& ,-& & -& & , ,WV,W, -&-&- ,-, ,,- -,-,,-, ,,-,- WV-WWV ,& , ,-, , ,', ,'WW,- ,-&-, P ,W,W, -,-&- -&-&- &-, , ,,-,-,-,-, VW,WV -%-, ,-& , , , , ,,-,, W, ,-,,-, W-WV- -,-,-, ,-,^+-& W& &-&, ,',&-&-&-, ,-,-,,--, & & & & & ,,WV-W ,-, , -,-,-,-,-W WVWV-V, -,-,-,, -,', , -&-&-&- -,,-,- -W-VW WWVWVW,-, , & &-,W &-&-& ,-,,-,, WV-VW- -,',-,- ,, &-,',', ,-XW, W,WV-V , &-& ,-,&- -,-,-,- -V-WWV- ,-,',-, -&-,- ,-& , -, ,-&-,', -,-,- WWV-V-W ,',',- ,',',, -V-V-VW ,&-,, -, , , ',, ,-,-&- , ,-, WV-VWWV-V X+-,- -&,',-,- -&-&, , &,' ,-,-,', WWV-V-W, -, , , -,,-, -V-W,WVW & &-&-,-,- &,', ,-, ,,&-&- -,-,,-, ',',-, -,-, ,-& ,,-,- ,,-&, -,, ,- ,-,-, ,,',- ,-,-,-,- -,,-, , & &-& ,-,-,-, &-&-,- -,-,- ,,-,- -WWV- W,W,V ,-, , , -,-, , -, ,& & &, -WV-V-W ,',&-, ,-, &-& &- & ,-,,-, -,-,- VWW,W,W -V-W, -,-, , & -& & , ,- -,-& & -,-,-,-, ,-,-,- WW,WVW &, ,-,-,&- W,,-,- VW-V-WW ,W,W-V -,-&-, ,-& & ,-&-,-,' -V,WV-VW V-VW+ ,-,-,, -,-,-& ,WV-VW,W W,W,WW- ,,-,- ,-& ,-, ,,WV-WV- VW-VW,W-VW -,-,- -,-&- -VW-V-VW- -,-,-, -W,WW ,WVWVW-V -,,-,- -,-,, W,WWVW ,W-W, ,,-, , ,W,W- -,-,,- ,,-,- ,-,-,- , ,-, &, , -,-,-,- ,,-& & -, &- ,-,-,- ,-,-, ,-,-,-, ,, & ,-& ,, ,,-,, -,-,- ,-,-, ,-,-,- ,-,',, &, , W, -,-,- -,,-,- -,-,-,' ',, ,, ,-,,- W-,-, -,-,- ,-,-&- & ,-,-,-W p126-2 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 2: Insects (page 2) ftsTitle Dragonflies have a two-part life history. The larva lives as an underwater predator before reaching a size at which it undergoes metamorphosis into an adult. Here the young adult is seen emerging from the larval skin, prior to taking to life in the air. y Arthropods 2. Insects (2 of 5) Insect habitats Of all invertebrates insects are the most suited to existence on land. This is chiefly due to the nature of the cuticle (the material from which the exoskeleton is made). This is so resistant to water loss that insects can easily exist even in the driest environments, and may also make them resistant to pesticides and disease. Water loss is also minimal in excretion and in respiration, the latter taking place by means of small closable pores or spiracles located along the thorax and abdomen. The cuticle has also allowed the evolution of very strong mouth parts, capable of tackling tough terrestrial plants. Insects have reinvaded water from the land, and - although rare in the sea because of competition from crustaceans - are the predominant invertebrate group in fresh water. Many insects, such as dragonflies and mayflies, live as larvae in water, exploiting the massive food resources of that environment but abandoning the water at metamorphosis, leaving the emerging adult free to feed, fly and mate in the aerial environment. Such larvae are completely aquatic, breathing by means of gills. Other insects, such as water boatmen and pond skaters, are said to be incompletely aquatic: although highly adapted for life in water and spending their whole life there, they have to return to the surface to breathe. Insect senses Visual, chemical and auditory sensory abilities are all well developed in insects. They are capable of producing and perceiving sounds in and beyond the range of human hearing. Insects' compound eyes are capable not only of perceiving the environment as we know it, in color, but also of perceiving polarized light patterns in the sky and using them in navigation. Their color-range perception is different from that of humans, in that they see ultraviolet light: plants that seem dull to us may appear bright and colorful to an insect. Chemical signals are perceived with extraordinary sensitivity by insects, and are used for many purposes. Female moths, for example, release a special chemical called a pheromone that can be detected by males over several kilometers at extremely low concentrations. When a bee stings, it produces an alarm pheromone, which causes other bees that receive the chemical to fly rapidly to the source of the pheromone, ready to attack. Another pheromone controls the development of social insects. * FLOWERING PLANTS (POLLINATION) * ARTHROPODS 1 * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture PLx,P( $xTx,p,LP( x,P$, $$,L$ $HPPL 0\Tt, $HPll ($$P(, $,(PPLTT$ x$P,t $$,$P ,P,xTt (t(PPt $x,tT P,txT (P(P( $,L,(tT PLP,$PLP (P,p0 ,P$Pt($ PTPtpPp PPxH, $$tpHPHt$ ($,L, 1P(t, $Pp$Hy, ,LPL$ LtLPl PHPP(P P(t,$ $$,t$$Pp, Tlxx$ ,H,$H P,H$$,$PH, $$Pl,H$, $,(tpt H$,$$ H,P$$,lt $,(P$ tH,p$t $$PlP ttlP$$ t(PPH, $$,HH 0$\8$`l t($,L$$ Pp$$a $P$$HtL H,L,$ $HltP $$HtP TpPH$L tlPp$H Ppt,P ltpPtHt(P t,Lx$ H$H,pt $,$,$Pp$$ ,$$lt$ ,t,pl P(H,p $,(H, 0$l,HP HH,HP LHHPlP, $$HPlt( tptP$H $lPPH $,p$$ $$,pP $t,LH, $$,p,t P,pTt $PH$P(PP x,,$x ,ptlP yTll\ $$0,l tlPPL $$,HP ,,L0P, $$Htp tl,H,$l PT,pP$ H$HPp $tPl$ $l,l,t $$H$HPl,H, HtLtll,$ $TPp, ll$$,y lPtpT $,LHP PtpPllp HPtLt tLPP(,tT Ptpt, tPlHPP(H $HtH$ $,$t$ ltlPtp $$0tT L$,p, P$P,$y P$,pP PltPl llP$$ t\tll tTP$,lP tLtlPpll xTtlxT P$PLlt ll$HPtL t$,plt tpPP$tL $H,lt lxTHt xPpPlt t$Pp$ HH,t, p126-3 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 2: Insects (page 3) ftsTitle The praying mantis is a voracious predator. Camouflaged in vegetation by its coloration, it waits for passing insects, which it grabs with its penknife-like front legs. Even its mate is not safe: this female is eating a male seized just as he has finished mating with her. Arthropods 2. Insects (3 of 5) Insects and plants The dependence of insects on plants for food has led over millions of years to a high degree of coevolution, resulting in much interdependence and anatomical modification on both sides. Two thirds of flowering plants are insect-pollinated. Insects such as bees and butterflies have evolved specialized mouth parts to enable them to reach nectar. Most insects, however, attack plants, which may supplement structural defenses with chemical ones. Some produce highly toxic chemicals, others high levels of indigestible material. Insects have responded in various ways, some evolving enzymes to combat the toxic chemicals, others adapting their life history to take advantage of the limited periods when plants are more easily digestible. Many insects avoid predation by camouflaging themselves, often so that they resemble plant material such as leaves or twigs. Some can change color to match their background. Not all insects hide, however. Many caterpillars, butterflies, wasps and other insects are brightly colored and obvious, to warn potential predators that they are dangerous and to be avoided. Other species, harmless in themselves, mimic the coloration of noxious species. * FLOWERING PLANTS (POLLINATION) * ARTHROPODS 1 * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 0T08T 1T0x0 00T00T8 T,9T0 L0T,00T\T 0T0]T01 \0x0U8 00x10T\x 08T0]\, T8T\T\T\ x9T]TT \T0\]T 09x8T9 T0T]9x`] 00T\x0 \\T\8\x T0\\]T]\ TT]T0 \\0]80 x9T]T\ P0T00 T00\0 ,T09T] L9T\Ta 00T80 0T0]T\ \00P0 P009T\]0 0T0x\ ,0T00] T0U\8 0U09x9 00T88 0T80\T TT]0T]\ 0T0\] 0T8\a >,U00 T00U8]\ P(t,L 5T]\00 ,9y,1 (T8]\` tU1tZ} T00]\ x\U80 xaU0U 0T0]` T0T]8 T10y9T\ 1,18U9\xQ x]\1T 1T]\9PQ U0T]\9m T001\=P] 0U0]8$ 0U0A$y Q01x] ta]\U\]8 xATT] x=09\9T ]00]0 $90]0 9Tx9TT]8 1\0]0U0 0T0]T]\]8 0T]T9x8T 80U88y\]1 90]8T 9x9\0 0\]\T $9TU\ T0T90 \T8T01 1T1T0 98]00] ]0tUT8U0UT ]0\0TT] 0T89T80U T08UP T00]0 x1\P] ]0T8]0]0 0]0U0 T0]U0T T18x90H T0,L, T0U8U8t9 y9\Q\80 P0\Ux00 T1x9x 00T0]y0 PyTPM ,Ty\] 9T1x] $0x\\ 0$1PLtP 9tbT, P0xyU P\\00 10T1U p126-4 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 2: Insects (page 4) ftsTitle Complete metamorphosis is found in endopterygote insects such as bees, beetles, and butterflies. As it hatches from the egg, the larvae (called a caterpillar in the case of moths and butterflies) bears no resemblance to the adult form. The larva commonly lives in a different environment from the adult, and may depend on a different food source. The larva feeds and grows, often for long periods, finally becoming quiescent and entering the protected pupal stage. Within the pupa (a chrysalis in moths and butterflies), the insect undergoes complete metamorphosis - wings appear externally for the first time and the insect takes on the appearance of an adult. Arthropods 2. Insects (4 of 5) Insect flight Flight is a major factor in the success of insects. Projections from the thorax, giving hopping insects a gliding ability, became increasingly more mobile and eventually evolved into effective wings - thin layers of chitin, stiffened by tubular veins. Insect flight is diverse and complex. Every flying insect has two pairs of wings but does not necessarily use both for flight. In primitive insects such as dragonflies, flight is achieved by raising and lowering the two pairs of wings by means of muscles attached to the wings. The wings beat out of phase in such a way as to give maximum efficiency. In more advanced insects, the wings are either linked together and beat as one, or - as in the case of beetles - one pair is stiff, held out as an airfoil, while the other provides the propulsive force. In flies one pair of wings is reduced to a pair of fast-vibrating knobs that function as gyrostabilizers. Wing-beat rates vary from a leisurely 300 per minute in some butterflies to an astonishing rate in excess of 50 000 beats per minute in certain tiny midges. In advanced insects the flight muscles are not attached to the wings but to the thorax wall. Flying is very energy-consuming, and insects in flight have a very high metabolic rate, using large amounts of energy stored in the thorax. Flying can, however, be highly energy-efficient - and has to be for migratory species such as locusts and monarch butterflies. The nature of locust thorax cuticle is such that as much as 90% of the energy exerted in one wing movement is stored by the cuticle and used in the next movement. This property of the body wall allows insects to fly great distances without becoming exhausted. Flight muscles operate best in warm conditions, and flight is impossible in cold conditions for small insects. Some insects undertake 'pre-flight' exercises to warm up their muscles. Wings beat in an aerodynamically efficient fashion with the correct posture to give maximum effectiveness. The most proficient fliers, such as hover flies, can fly forwards, backwards and hover by subtly altering the way the wings thrust on the air. * FLOWERING PLANTS (POLLINATION) * ARTHROPODS 1 * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread QVQd^^d d^d^d RXXRXR XXRXR-UX .XRdR: YXXRX RX4R: {d5'-X VWe_e zdeed :^:^4 :^^d__dee _:^^_ Pd^^dS __^]_^^RXR ePedePY W_dQ{ 8^^d_ d_dP dPWXRXX _^dbQWPP,: ^::^:^:8], ;\Q\Q __k^e 3Pe%+ zR^^P ^:^:\:P- ^e2': PWPeP :^__]_ ,2V^|dc :^^:^_ 1WW^e^ |We^e_ *-&;#;% ceYee te_\^d_ 443543 &- R S3dR33 ^dW3W ky;^^ d^W3W9 A9,-++ 2eePWWQP: e\_^: .X.4R ,XedPPe, ,YXX. eePP_ 2/VW- 8^^dW 4(//( 2 VP: 4d^^3 '-+, &/:.; ^^eP, :,Pe^^ Qd :| _kW^4]3 4:X^^ -ed :RXRd %--.+% dWWXWW9 WU-PA ePS^: ^^PPd ebR^^P _44R ^_d^d_^ _,,%48 P|.,, XX--+,,3 :RX.: 3+,R eP'+, -+Q ' .- -,: '- Q +,+ ' p126-5 ftsTitleOverride Arthropods 2: Insects (page 5) ftsTitle A termite mound. Termites and other social insects (ants, bees and wasps) often build large and elaborate structures to house their colonies. The interior of a mound consists of vertical and horizontal tunnels and galleries, and the mound itself provides shelter and protection from predators. Arthropods 2. Insects (5 of 5) Social insects Two orders of insects - wasps, bees and ants (Hymenoptera) and termites (Isoptera) - exhibit social organization in which closely related individuals live together in large groups. Individuals differ both in function and structure, and cannot survive outside the colony. The development of the colony is controlled by one or more reproductive individuals. Ants are always social and every colony is founded by a single fertilized female of large size (the queen), who produces eggs that develop into wingless sterile individuals. These workers and soldiers are all female and any males present do not work. Winged males and females develop at appropriate times to leave the nest and found a new generation. Termites behave in a similar way. Bees and wasps, only some of which are colonial, are similar in some respects to ants: all workers are female and the sole purpose of male bees (known as 'drones') is to mate with the queen. All individuals have wings, and queens are either just a little larger or distinctive only by their behavior. Honeybees have a single queen whose role is to lay eggs. The workers that emerge from the eggs have different roles in the function of the colony: they start as cell cleaners; graduate to feeding either larvae or the queen and to building combs; and finally become food foragers. Despite their busy life, workers usually live little more than a month. Many individuals are usually idling in the hive, ready to respond if a large food source is found or if the hive is threatened. 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T,P,0P, -T-P1 xTt,t 0x,P,(P0P ,yUxUP 0P,L,P P]0TU \x,P,( ,P(,P^ PTP,( P0P9x0t(x x]x1TT0P0 UUPTUYyU PxTT0t L0xTx (,T$P1x] PP,$, TP0t(0xx ,TPP0PT T,UTP(T0,T Tx,1U 1T,P(0 T,TPUTPTP0 ,,T,x0P(,P (xT,L, ,(tTxx0t $t(tx, UUTy1T,,L 1U1y9 \P(TU T,L,,(P(P, P0t,L1 t0t0x, x0P(T, (0y0t PTP00 M0TxTP,$ ,P0PTP( PTP(P P0xUT $,U0t P0,0P ]t(QTT, L,TT0 PLtPT,P ,P,T0T TPT0- ]P1T0x Uxx,x 0yTTP x0P00,P0 y,,L, ,Tx0P, P00P(,L ,,L,P ,P0,]TP 1P0TTP, ,T,LTT, t1xy, ,PPL,, xx,LPxP T\U0,TTU0 U00,0 ,L,P( P,01UT xx0t,PTP0 xUPTPLPxTP (PTxP(P, L0y1\U1L ,PT,( P,T,x0 P,,y0P,Tx0 0PLP, TTxx00x L,,P(,( T,xT0PTx0 ,xx,P ,TUTy T01UU, ,T1,T,T0 xxTPUTP ,t0t0Pp,$ P-t(, $1t01P 1U0,L,T,0- T,L,T 0y01U P(P,LP PL,(,LP qTxt,L 0P$,L,, -U1x: U0,-1 P(00t x,L,U, (,t(t0y MTPLx $,L,x UTTP, (xx0P1x,Tx ,p,,(PLPt- p,,L$ P0PTP0P0 x-T1,U 0xx0x,L p0yt(Q,P( P0T,T$ ,xU,P(PTP0 x]T,L y1UUY 0P0xU1U] 8y0yT: TUT,1 PPT,TT 01t)1x P(Tx,(P L,,xxTP(P PUy0yT y00T1 UU\y1 p,tUT (,(P,TU, L,M,P P(01P),T Q10x0 T$T,L L,0x,p 0P,L,P(P P,xTx 0xx,, ,P0Tx0P P-xxTTPTTP x,(t,L P,(P(x,,PT xux,P ,L,1T 0P0y]xP L01P1y xTt0PTTU xTP,x0xUP( T,xt,x0, (P$PL 0P(0P0PP(, ,TUT\T $,x0PM pPxx0PP (P,x, ,P(P(P P]U,P(P,P0 1x0,y0 TP,xUtTUxT PTPTTQ ,(t0,L0x,P 0yt1T 0t0P,PTL -xUT, }9y0yTP( PTxt,, xxTT,P( t(P,T 0xTQTU t1t0x tU,P(P L,,(TPx 0UTxTP 0x,0xx0TPT ,P0x0 ,t,P($,,L LP(x,( P0,x0t0 00t-xTPUT, T,x,y,L0x0 PUTU1 UxTPTP$-t 0UTPTxx TP,,xPx t-(,P(P,P PTx,PTP9t tTxyU PPTx,L,PL PUx,L t,P0P]T ]y0,, P0T-T 1y1xU xTxx0t0TPT TP,P0 ,PTx0 L,PLUy]U 1Ux1yU xxuTx0xUT, Ly0T,LUxP0 xTxyx $,tUx0, UTTxTxPx,x ,,x]xPT,0x TT,P(TPT, ]y0T0tTyx0 x0TP0tLPTP T,xxPP( y1x1x ,P(-- y1y,,T,x1 ,xTxTP,x x0x1UT 1tPT,tT ,T,x,P UP1,yU1 Uxxy0T P(x0yTT, 9x1x0- 1P(,T ]yy0yT Ux0x0PTP P(,TP y,tLP ]Uy0y9T ,t0P,T0 ,P(UTu (x1P1 yUx1tQ y1P-xy (yPy0 Ux,P, (0PUx, p128-1 ftsTitleOverride Fishes (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Fishes (1 of 3) Fishes, the vertebrates with the longest ancestry, inhabit the largest ecosystem on Earth - the water. Fishes spend all their life in water, and unlike aquatic mammals, such as whales and dolphins, they are cold-blooded and (with a few exceptions) can only use oxygen if it is dissolved in water. Modern fishes are extremely diverse in structure, and - although distinguished as a group as aquatic cold-blooded vertebrates - have not attained their present form by following a single evolutionary path. The 22 000 living species of fish are classified in 4 (or sometimes 5) classes, containing a total of more than 40 orders. This division at the class level implies a degree of distinctness among the various fish groups equivalent to that between, say, reptiles and mammals. The most primitive class, Agnatha, comprises around 60 species of lamprey and hagfish - soft-bodied fishes that lack jaws and are barely vertebrate. All other fishes have jaws and are therefore sometimes grouped together in the superclass Gnathostomata; within this group, two classes are of pre-eminent importance. The class Chondrichthyes contains nearly 600 species of cartilaginous fishes; most of these belong to the predominantly marine subclass Salachii, which includes sharks, skates and rays (sometimes known collectively as elasmobranches). The class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) contains over 21 000 species, and is again divided into two unequal subclasses: the small subclass Sarcopterygii (fleshy-finned fishes) contains the coelacanth and the lungfishes; the much larger subclass Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) is almost entirely made up of the group known as the teleosts. The teleosts are the dominant fishes of the world today, accounting for over 95% of all living species. In terms of diversification, they are the most successful of all vertebrate groups, with more species than all other vertebrates put together. They are widely distributed in fresh and salt water from Arctic to Antarctic regions. Anatomy The characteristic adaptations of fishes are related to propulsion through water and extraction of oxygen from water. Typically, fishes have well-muscled paddles called fins, and the tail is well developed, to provide power and aid steering. The skin is impermeable to water, and often amply supplied with mucus cells, spines or bony plates for further protection. In cartilaginous fishes, the skeleton is formed from gristly, partially calcified cartilage, and the body is solidly - almost inflexibly - muscled. Like most other fishes, their body fluids have a lower salt content than that of their environment, and - because they lack the swim bladder or lungs possessed by bony fishes - they must keep moving to maintain their chosen position. Generally their skins are rough and leathery, with many minute toothed scales, and their fins are fleshy. The bodies of rays and skates are flattened, with the mouth and gill slits on the underside, and the eyes and two gill spiracles (modified gill slits) on the upper surface. Bony fishes have internal skeletons made of true bone. The head and shoulder regions are covered by large bony plates, while the rest of the body is typically covered in iridescent bony scales. There is flexibility in both body and tail, and the fins are supported by bony rays, usually movable and often bearing sharp spines. Their pelvic fins are generally well developed. In some species, such as eels, the knife fish and the lungfishes, it is the dorsal or anal fins that provide propulsion. A few bony fishes have stiffly rayed pectoral fins that can be used as props or stilts. The climbing perch of India and the Asian and African mudskippers are able to move on land, while the bizarre shortnose batfish of the Caribbean - a poor swimmer - crawls over the sea bed on arm-like fins. The coelacanth, found only off the Comoro Islands near Madagascar, is virtually a living fossil, scarcely changed in 90 million years. It was once thought that its fleshy bone-supported fins were used to walk on the sea bed. In fact these fins are used primarily for balance and for putting on the occasional burst of speed. However, the coelacanth and the related lungfishes move their fins alternately - just like salamanders walking on land - and it is thought that these fins are the precursors of land-vertebrate limbs. Lampreys and hagfishes lack jaws, but they have rasping horny teeth. Many species attach themselves to other fishes by means of their sucker-like mouths, and feed on their blood and tissues. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Fish anatomyoToSy **++* szsOPsP 2+X,+ V,+,2 ,$O+O ++,+V ^XWW, VW++VW- WVX,, R ,3-4.4_ .4544Y 4 ,- 3 -z%+O .44 , 54_e-,3 - -.- PIOP+r +IO%$ &,,&, +$+%+ 3$+%O+N W,WWX --,Q |W,3-& ,,-,y ,+{VP{ XHPNO ^WQQ,QQO, ,%Xe%& %,,%W |,IOOX W$P+$ ,,&,,& WPOON PNP%O tOPOtP 3$+$+ $$+%H |,VWO %POOP POOP- W+PVV$ X{NPOsPV ,%VX% ,$O+O _,V,% VI{Pz HOI+H tOPstP _PWWP |$P$H OPO&zP z&zVP P+I,%$ ,$$,$ PPz,H W{$%+ OPNtP POPOt ,$%$$ ^W+PV2 OW$+O ,HPNP OIOV% ztVPN --$+$ P+%P$ WO{W{ ,$O$H |POOst |W$OP $++%N ]WW3Q WHX$$I $O+O% POPst, {$%IO X{%OO V{POz %OP+s OzzPO &$O%$ OPsz%O NPOtP ,$O$H O%O%O |s,$WH W{OOP P$OO%$ {V&N$V %$%%P $V%NP W%OP$ |HPOsP O{V+$$+V OIzXW+$ %O%++P y,${, {-$VP$ IOP$y ,$+$+ XOPOOPP $O$N+ X$O+Oz%O {OOPO IOzWO $O$zW XW$OP +POV$ zOPst WOOP%z{ {POPz p128-2 ftsTitleOverride Fishes (page 2) ftsTitle Red Coral Cod from the Great Barrier Reef. For many tropical coral-reef fish, bright and highly distinctive color patterns are believed to play a crucial role in species recognition, an essential precursor to successful breeding. Fishes (2 of 3) Gills and lungs Almost all fishes take in water through the mouth and expel it to the exterior across their gills - internal blood-rich organs that extract oxygen from the water. Jawless and some cartilaginous fishes have visible gill slits on each side of the neck region, while bony fishes have a pair of hard bony flaps (the opercula) covering their gill exits. Rays and some sharks that also have spiracles may take in water chiefly through these openings, rather than through the mouth. Lungs are found in the most primitive bony fishes, but in teleosts they have been transformed into the swim bladder, a gas-filled buoyancy aid. Some fishes, typically mud, estuary and swamp dwellers, use the swim bladder in addition to the gills for gas exchange, gulping in air when at the surface. Lungfishes have one or two lungs, which they use when they spend drought periods dormant in their dried-up burrows - an example of aestivation. Fish senses Most fishes have large well-developed eyes, with a reflective layer (the tapetum) inside the eye and more cells in the retina sensitive to low light than land animals. This allows fishes to make maximum use of light filtering through water or generated by other fishes. The sense of smell is very important for migratory fishes, leading them back to their beach or river of origin. Fishes can detect magnetic and electrical fields, as well as vibration and sound. Changes in their environment can be sensed by means of specialized organs - mucus-filled pits with sensory hairs - located on the head and within the lateral lines. Skates, rays, the South American knife fish and the Nile elephant snout fish all use their sensitivity to electrical fields to help them hunt in muddy waters and at night. Some fishes are vegetation-eaters, feeding on fallen fruit, plants or bottom detritus. Most, however, are predatory carnivores, taking crustaceans such as copepods, krill and other shrimps, invertebrates such as jellyfish, and any vertebrates they can catch, including mammals, birds and other fishes. Some fishes are specialized for dealing with their food. The archerfish of Australasia and Southeast Asia shoots jets of water from its mouth to knock insects off vegetation. The parrotfishes have strong beaked teeth at the front of the mouth and crushing teeth at the back, to scrape algae and coral off the reefs they inhabit. The pacu, related to the carnivorous piranhas, also has crushing teeth, and eats fruit and seeds. The basking shark is one of the largest fishes, and the whale shark is the biggest of all, sometimes growing to around 18 m(60 ft). Despite their great size, however, they resemble baleen whales in their method of feeding, living on plankton and small fishes, sieved from sea water as it passes across their gills. Their passive feeding behavior contrasts sharply with the aggression shown by other sharks and the active hunting of smaller fishes by barracuda and other ocean fishes such as tuna, swordfish and sailfish. The life cycle of fishes The eggs of most bony fishes are fertilized externally - the male sprays the eggs with sperm after they have been laid by the female. Eggs are provided with a supply of yolk and a protective coat. Spawning fishes can gather in huge numbers. At high spring tides, millions of grunion are carried up onto the beaches of the southwestern USA, where eggs and sperm are shed and the fertilized eggs are buried in the sand. The eggs hatch only at the next high tide - an example of moon-phase spawning. Where eggs are internally fertilized, as in the coelacanth, the young usually develop inside the female, hatching at or soon before expulsion. Internal fertilization is normal in cartilaginous fishes, the males of which have the pelvic fins adapted as claspers, to help maintain contact during copulation and to assist in funneling in sperm. The common dogfish and skates produce their eggs in hard black capsules with corner tendrils, sometimes called 'mermaids' purses'. Adult fish generally desert their eggs, but there are examples of guarding and nursing behavior. The Nile mouthbrooder carries its newly hatched young inside its mouth, while the discus of South America carries its young on its sides, where they feed on the mucus covering its scales. Male Siamese fighting fish make a nest of bubbles for the young, while the European stickleback uses plant material, and the male guards the eggs until they hatch. Most hatched young are miniatures of their parents, but there are exceptions. The North American and European eel undergoes an extraordinary multistage development. The young of flatfishes - such as flounders and plaice - are round-bodied, but as they mature, the body twists to the left or right (depending on the species), so that both eyes end up on one side, with the mouth at the edge. Males and females of most fishes differ in appearance, if only in size and sometimes in brightness of color. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture --11-1- --1-11 1-11- 9U11- --11- --11- -11-11- 11-1-1 11-11 1-11-1- -1-1- (-,--, Q,M-,--, ),--, ,-11] 91--,1- --1-U1 )1--1-)- --11-11- 1-1--M ,Q-L1-Q1)- -1-1- P-,-- (11Q1(1) -11-1- 1P)1L1Q1t1 -1-1- --1-1 Q-(P-)P-M, Q(-,-L-,M1 -1(-1 u11Q11u )--1(1-)1p 1M-(-1 -(Q),Q,),M QP)P)Q,M-1 1U-L11 y,y11t )-11- ,-1Q12U1- ,M-u1P1--T 11-1--1- 1-1U11 -Q1-M,M,Q- (Q-)Q,)-P1 1y-PU1U 1u0u-1U2 21)T-11Q 1PM0Q,UM1, P12U1--M-p -M-U-)P-L- ,U-(Q1uUy yQ0u1t-2 -11V2 11V21Q1QM1 t1Q)T1 )2V:Z1L,,- 2V1)P-) Q-1QUtyQyU PUu1t1u1 U,-2^11)x1 MQUL11--,1 -11-11 -1U1- QY2::1-)Q( Q1U^^ V1QUyTyu UytyPyP11Y M1-11- ,-1)Q Q,1QU-UQ1p 1u11p112 -1V:^1)PMP 0uyqU yQyQyuL-P1 -1)Q11 --1)1q1QU- y-T1qy1-1- )P119-,)P- (Q-L1,M,-1 UuxQyuy- PMP11V2- U11-1U2 ^11UT -t1uUQTQyQ UP1-1 -,1-- Q,)P-L-QQL -u(,-L--M, y1TuUz yUtyPqP y,Uyt --V2UP-:^2 1uU1qT ,)Q,M-(-p- Q(-Q(Q,M,Q 101UUQy QyPyQy QQUuU1U ^21-1:: V:U1u 2Y-yPyyQ U-1U11 )Q,)-P-L-u (uQ(Q-),QT )u1uyy VyyPytU,U- -,1-,1- 1y--11) 2^1y-yUuyQ U-11V QPMPU,M-,L --)1-L,Q)- TyyxQu UqUuUuUU -11-1)P11 11)U,)1u1y 1-11UQyUV2 UUyuxU1y, QL-MPq-,M, -y2V1-M-0u yPyQx yPqTuT TuxUyU 1Q01M1 M1-0Q 1y-U-U )TQUu1U1 1-UQyQyP1U QUP11 PUQPQ--U-) :V11PMT TyuUyux yUQ1Q- 1-U-11 -1P11 u0uUUVyyUU yuyyQ1y1y1 )-t)y1V V22U-xQyU UyVyVyUyy2 -11V:2- U11-1)12:2 QUuyU uUyyVV yy-yQyQU12 Q,MPQU2^ ,)P)12: yUyutU c;11U11:1- U1L1^ 1UUQy1 Uu1yyUyu1 -L-MPU P-M-Q b1--11V UQyyUy UyUUQy 21-,(Q0U1T -L-,UU --T1u1 1-11-U1-1q 0u12:^UyyU yU11x yyQyQy L-Q(-P) -Q(y,y QxQt) -11)U y1y1^^ --Q(-P), Q(uyQyuUuT )Q(-- MT--1V :V10y-U1U1 QyUU1 P(-Q)Q1 (-yPytUt Q0u1,M P1QU1-TUU1 -1U:c;1QUy 1-11xU yQyyU Uuy1- -L-Q-- -yPM1-U 1-U1ty1u0q y112^>U1,U U-yyQ yu1yU Q-(Q2 :U1QMU2V1- )yU1yUU 11uyU 1yy1U^ ?U- 1Q,--y -QU1) 1yUyU 1)P11,y UTuUxu- 1yUuUy1y1 1QTuy 11P1)yQU uMxQuyuyz yZy1- 1x1yU 0yQyUyU UyyUy --(Q1)tUtU ^UUxyQU Uyypyu 11--TQUyUu UUytUt1 -V11),yQty yyUyy1Q, Uuyy1 yPyytUy 1yPyyP yQyUt 2^:1U,y zUtUP)u 0uUuy U1PUPy ^ ^ZyyUy 1UQyyVzyUu QyQxQu 01y1u0uV TQxuyT -M0u1uy yQypUtM t-yuTyyUt Q0uTyt1u y1qQy UyUyt tUuq1 -pUQ,yQy,y UQxQy tUtUyUy QTQLyQpy-u 0uUyz^ 1-UPU,yPyx QUtyV U1PQQM,yQp upyQy^ Uy]yT 1)1-1Qy-pQ yPyPUY yytUu P1Q2211uU tqQyQy0UPy M--1V: UuQyP PyUyUx UyUyT )12_? -xQxu ,M,-1:? 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All sharks are carnivorous, and most are voracious predators, feeding on a very wide range of aquatic animals. Several of the larger sharks have been known to attack humans and small boats, notably the huge 9 m (30 ft) white (or man-eating) shark. However, around 90% of all shark species present no real threat to humans, because they are too small, their teeth are inadequate, or they live at too great a depth. Fishes (3 of 3) Distribution and habitats Fishes are ectotherms - their metabolic system is generally adapted to the temperature of their habitat, so they are effectively cold-blooded. Fast swimmers such as tuna maintain their body temperatures 3-12 degC (5-22 degF) higher than the surrounding water by eating almost constantly. Antarctic cod survive water temperatures of -2 degC (28 degF) using a protein-based blood antifreeze. In the twilight zone at depths of 200-1000 m (660-3300 ft), the commonest fish in the oceans, the luminous cyclothone, is found in great shoals. In this region, luminescence becomes commoner as location of mates, prey or predators by sight is impossible: up to 80% of fish species carry 'lights' of some kind, often as lures to trap prey. In the deepest parts of the oceans, below 2000 m (7000 ft), fishes have evolved bizarre adaptations to their habitat. Many anglerfishes have a luminous 'fishing rod', formed from a ray of the dorsal fin, which extends above the mouth and attracts prey with its fleshy 'bait'. Others, such as the gulper eels, trawl for food with their huge mouths gaping open. Perhaps the richest habitats for colorful fishes are the tropical coral reefs. Many of these fishes have beaks as well as teeth, which they use to graze on coral and seaweed. The clownfish lives in a symbiotic relationship with stinging sea anemones, thereby gaining protection from predators. ML-E DEFENSE BEHAVIOR Fishes may use their teeth or their speed to avoid predators. Many have spiny scales or fin supports, which are capable of inflicting severe damage. Others, such as stonefishes and the weever, can inject poison through their spines. The weever rests hidden in the sandy shallow waters of the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, and can give the unwary bather a very painful sting if trodden on. The stingray lashes out with its tail and injects poison through a sharp spine, sometimes causing death in humans. The members of the pufferfish family have an astonishing array of defenses. Trigger-fishes have three stout spines on their dorsal fin, which help lock them into crevices, while boxfishes are protected by a bony shell. Pufferfishes swallow water or air until they are spherical, turning into balls of spines; many species also contain a powerful nerve poison. Despite this, a Pacific species of pufferfish is considered a great delicacy in the Far East, where several deaths a year result from incorrectly prepared fish. Some fishes make use of the natural electrical activity of muscles. By storing huge numbers of tiny voltages, the Atlantic torpedo - a ray - can produce over 200 volts, and the electric eel of the Amazon up to 500 volts. The African electric catfish may reach 1.2 m (4 ft) in length, and can easily stun a human being. Such electric charges may also be used aggressively and in courtship. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture bF>BbB bB>cB ^>fjk cG?f; c#?k? c>g>?Cb?g? cCb?f> ?f?g?>g>cBcB> cB?f>f>>> >f>b> b>b>b>f> b>b>b> cB?Bc>>b> bBb>b>b bCb?b> b?b>b >f>b> ^>f?>g>bBcB?BcBc>Cb>bg>g b>gFc >j?j>?bCb >bb ?> >?c>c >b?b> c#c#c#?k ?g?c> ?k?g#cC g???g cCc#cG#c cGcC? c?g#? ?b?c?cCc >g>?g>?C ?g>cBb?f>cBbG cCc?g ?cCc?g? cCc?g> g?>Cb bCb>b f?g?f ^CbCbC c#c??B c??C? bB>b=f: BbB?B ^>>gF =f>f> bB>bb p130-1 ftsTitleOverride Amphibians (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A European green tree frog. Male frogs and toads attract females by producing croaks distinctive to their species. This is achieved by trapping air in the sac beneath the chin and pumping it backwards and forwards across the vocal cords. Amphibians (1 of 5) Amphibians, the majority of which are frogs and toads, have never achieved a total separation from water, and usually spend at least one stage of their life in water. Sharing a common ancestry with lungfishes, they often possess gills as well as lungs, and most have a moist skin, to allow air to pass through it. Their eggs are generally covered in gel, and lack shells and complicated membranes. The class Amphibia contains over 4000 species and is subdivided into three orders: Anura (frogs and toads); Urodela (newts and salamanders); and Apoda (caecilians). Strictly speaking, the term 'toad' is applied to the members of the family Bufonidae, while 'frog' is used of the family Ranidae. In common usage, however, the two words are used more or less indiscriminately, an anuran with a smooth moist skin being termed a frog, one with a drier, warty skin being referred to as a toad. Anatomy The structure of amphibian skin allows oxygen dissolved in water to pass through it and to be absorbed directly into the bloodstream. On land the skin is kept moist by glands that secrete mucus and other protectants, thus allowing some oxygen from the air to dissolve and pass through it. Most frogs and salamanders are highly efficient at 'skin-breathing', but toads are much more reliant on their lungs, and will die if unable to get out of water. Frogs and toads have well-developed fore-legs and fingers, adapted for digging or holding, while the hind limbs are elongated for leaping or running. Tree frogs have adhesive discs on their toes, making landing more secure. All frogs and toads have large eyes and eyelids, which they blink when they swallow. Many also have a functional nictitating membrane - the third eyelid, which lubricates and cleans their eyes - and color vision with a special sensitivity for blue light, which helps them to find water quickly. Amphibians - like fish, reptiles and birds - have a single passage, the cloaca, for release of eggs and sperm, and expulsion of body wastes. A special feature of many frogs and toads is a highly extendable tongue, which is flicked out, tipped with sticky saliva, to trap unwary prey. The skeleton of frogs and toads is highly modified, with a single neck vertebra, a short trunk and very short fused ribs. The lower spine and pelvis are fused to form the urostyle - the double-arched, saddle-shaped structure that gives adults their squat, humped shape and acts as a shock absorber for leaping. The tail is absent, hence the name 'Anura' (from the Greek word meaning 'tailless'). By contrast, newts and salamanders have well-developed necks and tails, up to 100 vertebrae, and lack the urostyle found in frogs and toads. In general, they spend more of their lives in water than frogs and toads, keep internal gills into adulthood, and can 'breathe' through their skins. Fully aquatic species are often neotenous - they retain juvenile features even when sexually mature. The eyes and limbs of caecilians are small or vestigial, their main sense organs being tentacles on their cheeks. They have up to 250 vertebrae and lack tails. Unlike other amphibians, they often have scales buried in their skin, which is ringed like an earthworm's. These are all adaptations to a burrowing life. Amphibians' teeth are often poorly developed or absent, and they rely on adhesive tongues or gripping jaws to capture and subdue their prey. Large amphibians can eat nestling birds, snakes, mice, other amphibians, and even bats, while smaller amphibians rely for their diet on insects, fish, tadpoles, slugs and snails. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture x0,y,0P, T0y\tT0,P- ],UUT 0U-xT0P 0P0U, 1,Ty9L, )t,$$ U09T00 P0,x1 0T0T0 0T00T0 U0T00T T10]00T09T P,x,L, T9T\00T8 00T0U TU,T91 t(tPTP 1T8U0\0 x]0U0 00T0T 0]00T8]01 T\0T08T 10\T10 ]0\T0 y8T1\01T0 0y010P( \10\09T08U 1T0TT 00\1T8T8T8 8U008T 01T\\]x ]0\180T0U0 UTU8UPL T81T8 \T8T1T8T00 T]T9T (P(P, 90\0T0]0 U\T0T810]0 8x80T T9T0]0T T1T1T0\01 T\1T0U0 U0T8T1T0 0U0U, $$,(P $,P(, p1P,-,P( T109T 0T00U ,p,$, UP,0U,L ,P(Q,L 0U10P01P P,t(P, 10x0x-TPx, L,P,M1P LQPP(PPLP, T1T1T0T P(t(P 0x0xTxQ Q0,tT 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The fertilized eggs, or spawn, remain in their protective gel for about a week. They then hatch into larvae called tadpoles, which bear no resemblance to the adult form. 2. During its early weeks, the tadpole feeds mainly on algae. It breathes by means of feathery external gills, which wither away within the first month and are replaced by internal gills. 3. By the time the tadpole is about ten weeks old, the hind limbs and toes have appeared. The tadpole has developed teeth, and can eat small insects, worms, and other tadpoles. Meanwhile the front limbs develop within the internal gill chambers, ready to push through. Within a week or so, lungs will have taken over from the gills, allowing the tadpole to breathe air. 4. After four months the limbs are developed, the tail has all but disappeared, and the vertebral column has taken on its final form - the tadpole is now essentially a young frog. 5. The frog is sexually mature by about its third year, and returns to its native pond to breed. Amphibians (2 of 5) Amphibian life cycles The gel-covered eggs of frogs and toads are externally fertilized, like those of most fish. The smell of water and algae attracts both sexes to ponds, streams and damp places. Closeness of male and female is vital and is ensured by a clasping reflex (the amplexus). Females may carry males on their backs for weeks before laying eggs, at which point sperm is immediately shed by the male through the cloaca. Successful fertilization results in the familiar masses of eggs or spawn, frogs laying in clumps that float at the surface and toads in strings in deeper water. Once the eggs have been laid, the adults generally take no further interest in them, leaving them to develop on their own. In most other amphibians, fertilization is internal and takes place underwater in the case of newts and salamanders, or underground in the case of most caecilians. Male newts and salamanders have glands on their cheeks or in the cloaca that release chemical signals called pheromones , which attract females and make them relax during mating. This allows the transfer of a gel-covered sperm package, the spermatophore, which is released by the male and sinks to the bottom, and is then picked up by the female using her cloaca. Male caecilians have a copulatory organ for internal fertilization. In most cases the eggs are kept inside the female until hatching. The European salamander and some caecilians go one stage further - the young develop inside the mother's body, and are nurtured by internal secretions. The immature forms of newts and salamanders resemble adults more closely than do frog tadpoles, except that they have external gills and tail fins. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture )0x11 00yyx (xx1xy yxp(( xxp($ y9x(0-1 y0-00y (0((x q0pxy 01-0y] x0xx1 p130-3 ftsTitleOverride Amphibians (page 3) ftsTitle European marbled newts. Adult newts of many species spend much of the year on land, but have to return to water - ponds or stretches of still water - in order to breed. Amphibians (3 of 5) Breeding variations Some frogs and toads are ovoviviparous - they keep their eggs in the oviduct within their bodies, only releasing metamorphosed young from the cloaca as the eggs hatch. The male may carry the eggs, wrapped round the hind legs in the case of the European midwife toad, in the vocal sac in the case of Darwin's frog from South America. The female Surinam toad implants fertilized eggs in her back, where the young develop before finally erupting through the skin. Amazon tree frogs use the water-filled 'vases' at the center of certain tropical plants, laying their eggs on leaves and carrying the tadpoles on their backs to the water. Distribution and habitats Amphibians are ectotherms, i.e. cold-blooded. They rely on external heat to maintain normal activity, and this fact is reflected in their habitats and behavior. Frogs and toads are found in all continents except Antarctica, with a greater concentration of species in warmer parts. They have exploited water, land and trees equally well. The Javan flying frog glides between trees, using highly developed footwebs. Some have adapted to dry conditions, such as the Arizona spadefoot toad, which spends the dry months in undergound burrows, only emerging after the seasonal rains - an example of aestivation. The majority of newts and salamanders are found in the northern hemisphere and are well represented in more temperate regions. Their ability to breathe through the skin as well as the lungs allows some salamanders to live in mud and swamps, such as the mud puppy of the Great Lakes region of North America and the mud eel of southeastern USA. The olm lives in the underground cave pools of Croatia, and has lost both its sight and its pigmentation. Salamanders can also withstand the cold - some species are even found in the Himalaya and Siberian Arctic. Caecilians are the most specialized amphibians, living in water and earth bur rows exclusively in the Equatorial belt. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture $P0tt0tp $tLT$ xtp$Tt $,,(H P,tx$ 0$,LPp ,(,t,p,( t$x$H $0P]P T-pT$ l,PH1$ 0P]pT\ xTP(t ,$x,t0 tL$t, L,,tt P$xPP $P,P$ ,HTx$ Pp,tx P$\Tx $x,x$ Px,LPt xHxTtP ,tTPL0 tpPt, xPx,$t P$P,pPP PPLPt P(P,lx (x-xP Lx0T$\ Pp,PL P(PT-H H,$P$ $,LPt ,,L\T tHt($t tTtTyP $PxP(, $TtxaP\ ,0t(PP ,(,tp, t(PPxPp P(0P, 0$Ttt\ xPP]P QTt,H, TH,PT0P\ P(P(t t(t0$H$ ,PLP(,x ,xPL, PPTHt $0P$t$ lTPPPx Px,x, PL$,t tPxPP (t0t(PPx Tt,LP$P $,(x,x,PLt H,$P(t l,0lT,, P,pTtx $x,L$ T$,xPP\$ HT$PP$0, xPP(P $$9$, (t(PPpt(x T$,,P$ (P,0, HP$,$, ,,pTtL t,p1x Ut0P$ P,,p,t UU,TP$ t$0H, tTP(P,$ t-LP$ ($Tt,H PTtp,PT LPPPPLtlPp, P,P($x PTx,p $,LH, LPTt, ,$,($, $PtPt tt(P$ ,PH,tTP PP,t( $,LPP $PP$, $x,$x PTt$,p Pt0lx H$,L,,L P0PL,P0$ HtTt($ ,LtP$T PTxxt $P$,$ P(P,, TPLtP P,l\$ ,L,xT l,$,$ 1tp,pTH PL0P$ t$P$$ 0,(xtx $,ptP lP$,p 0$,,L P(t,pH ,$HPt (xTPP tLP$x xlPTU tlP0,P PP,0l xT,x$, PH,HP 0tP$0 ,txtH LTP8$ $0tP( xTx,$P L,$Pp 1,LPP HPp,P Tt-T($P$$$H LPPp,P P(P(t ,$P($ $$lxP P(PHH PP$tL txTx0 $,L,P tPpt\l (UPPL,tL P(t(,tpP PLtTtL I,(xt,T P,(,x Tx,L,, PPx,t0x,L$t 0txH$ xt(P(PP 0P,(, Pt(0,t PLPPP$ $P,(H PTtp$T P$tLx U$$(t T$,p,t tx$Pxt $x,HHt PPL,t$ $,xtP a\P$x PH,tL $xTxt,H P,pTt ,,$,H \x$0PxT ,xx0- $THxP ,$PPt ttP(,PTlP P(PxP ,x,xx P(,tp$, $P$,t(x, ,xl,p ,t$,T, LPpPL $,LP$ Q$%$01 (HH$t Pp,$t T$$,$, PL,$T$ T$,x, 00ytl tLP(t, ,t(T0xH $$T,pT (PLx$ PP,t, $0xTt tPP1t tptTt T$Tt(T-H PL,(PT x,$Tx,t$x tH$PP ,pTPP $$$PH P0PpP $t(,Hl ,tP$,tpPL $Py,xPL T$,T,p$ t,(TP ,p,xPLTt,t 0PP,p,HP PT,xT ,$Px$$, PLt,x$ ,L,$P txTtt ,y,Pt t$PpPT L$$$t0x, PLxx, ,,L,( 0t(,t TH,,p$ ,p,PP tLx,p TPl0$ ,$xt( ,pPpT ,tPt(PLP $tLPP$,L,T ,$,PT 0tPPx, U$TxxTH $PLP, ($,t. 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Group sex maximizes the chances of at least some tadpoles surviving the stresses of heat and weather to achieve metamorphosis. The tight grip of the male toad on the right - the so-called amplexus reflex - ensures that the release of sperm and egg occurs as closely together as possible. Amphibians (4 of 5) Life in the deepfreeze Only recently has it been discovered that some North American frogs - the grey tree frog, the spring peeper, the wood frog and the chorus frog - can survive periods of freezing between 0 and -8 deg C (32 and 18 deg F). When freezing starts, there is an extremely rapid accumulation in their blood of glucose - or glycerol in the case of the grey tree frog - which acts as a kind of antifreeze. The vital internal organs are insulated from further cooling by the frog's frozen exterior and its glucose- or glycerol-rich cell fluids. Defense behavior Most amphibians are relatively defenseless. Frogs scream or squeak, and toads puff themselves up with air and stand on their tiptoes, appearing to grow to three or four times their normal size. Toads, some salamanders and the great crested newt have another line of defense. Salivary glands in the head and glands in the body skin secrete poisons - bufotoxins - that affect blood pressure, nerves and muscles in predators. These poisons are extremely potent, hence the use of frog poison by Amazonian Indians to tip their arrows. Pregnancy diagnosis African clawed toads are the most aquatic of all toads and frogs, and are highly active breeders, laying more than 100 000 eggs each year. To support this activity they even eat some of their own tadpoles. 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HQlUy ]-0I-, P1T1Q, 111^1]1 1,-$P]- QTU-,y,P$y y,MPU-$,(u U1Q$$Q L999U0-1 11]U1 9VUuy U1UQ- uLU01 L$yeU H,$0Q 9$$Uy 1--tHP 1)Pb1-p T$9yU p130-5 ftsTitleOverride Amphibians (page 5) ftsTitle A Mexican axolotl Amphibians (5 of 5) NEOTENY Typical features of the larval stage of amphibians are the gills - loops of tiny blood vessels, clearly seen as feathery clumps on each side of the head. The internal gills are similar, hidden inside pouches in the neck region. Adult newts and salamanders do not lose their internal gills, and some species also keep the external pair. This persistence of juvenile features into sexual maturity is called neoteny, and is most clearly seen in the axolotl of Mexico. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -TU1x UxUyPyTuPy,QTPUU,,L,L-$Q) L,L0P,Q00t, pT0xTyTy]y0U\U0U1, ,U0U,TU]]x,U U,xTU xPxxTttPxTxUt y0yxUty,yt,p-P,-(,$ $0y]P1xtLP 0t-,0yPUUy PpUt0y 1U]y1 y0y0Q ,1]0, P,L1x-T,U,y1U0 ,xTxxtTTyTxUtTx0PxTQ, Uy]y] \yTUxy UyTuUyxTtxUy,P),L >\ FbA P)x,P1 0Q1xUx-T1xyUTUT, $,P0T,x- UU]UUxyUy1y ,x01QTU0y\y,Ux,U]U1y9U1 P,L,L-PLtTxtT TUyTxU yUyxUyxPUtx,t( Q,P,t,UT xUyTt ,,L-T0y,UTyTy1xUyy0$ (Q,TxxUx y]UYU ,L-x1T0xUx,q0 1y]y10,,$,p,,P0xTxPxTPTtxxTxtUT, xUyTyUx,)P( P-xTyx0 MxTP( P(,-L-,1uTU,y8yU P,(P(0xUx9t] Q(]Ty\ (P0x,PTT,xUtTxUxtTt UtQ0Qp,(Pu 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man has been on the planet. Unlike living reptiles - which either crawl, or walk with their limbs extended out to the sides - dinosaurs walked with their limbs directly under their bodies, just like modern mammals and birds. However, like modern reptiles, most of the dinosaurs were probably cold-blooded. Many dinosaurs were of gigantic size, some weighing up to 100 tons. Nearly 1000 species have been identified, and although the word 'dinosaur' is from the Greek for 'terrible lizard', there were herbivores as well as carnivores. Beginnings The ancestors of the dinosaurs are found among the early thecodonts ('socket teeth') that lived in the early Triassic period 235 million years ago. Primitive thecodonts were somewhat like modern crocodiles (which also evolved from them). They developed thick, flattened muscular tails for swimming, and longer and more powerful hind limbs to provide the initial thrust for lurching at their prey. When they emerged onto dry land, the difference in the length of the fore and hind limbs meant that the hind limbs had the potential to move at a greater speed than the fore. This problem was overcome by the first dinosaurs lifting their forelimbs and running on their hind limbs as bipeds, with the heavy muscular tail acting as a counterbalance. Another crucial factor that enabled dinosaurs to colonize terrestrial habitats was the development of the reptilian egg with its protective shell. The Triassic period The first true dinosaurs appeared in the late Triassic period, about 205 million years ago - actually a little later than the first mammals. From the very beginning, two different orders of dinosaur can be distinguished, the Saurischia and the Ornithischia. The saurischian ('lizard-hipped') dinosaurs had a pelvic girdle structured like that of modern lizards, whereas the pelvic girdle of ornithischian ('bird-hipped') dinosaurs was like that of birds. The first ornithischians were ornithopods('bird-footed'), and were small bipedal herbivores, about 1 m (40 in) long. Like some modern crocodiles, they seem to have spent the hot summers dormant in their burrows. The first saurischians were the theropods ('beast-footed'), a group of bipedal carnivores about 2 m (6 1/2 ft) in length. There were two contrasting kinds: a heavily built, large-headed carnosaur, and a lightly built, long-necked, small-headed coelurosaur. From one group of coelurosaurs eventually evolved a group of giant herbivores, the sauropods ('lizard feet'). The sauropods included several massive quadrupedal types such as the brontosaur and the diplodocus, but the largest was the brachiosaur, 25 m (80 ft) long and weighing 100 tons. These giants spent much time browsing in lakes and rivers. The water helped to support their weight, and the fact that they could also swim is shown by fossil trackways of the prints of the forelimbs alone. The Jurassic period During the Jurassic period, 205-135 million years ago, the giant sauropods were the dominant herbivores. At the same time the carnosaurs developed into huge, ponderous 12 m (40 ft) scavengers. In dramatic contrast, the lightly built coelurosaurs remained small, active hunters - one group was only 60 cm (2 ft) long. During this period, some reptiles (not strictly dinosaurs) began to return to the sea. Notable examples, both with paddle-like limbs and growing up to 12 m (40 ft) long, were the dolphin-shaped ichthyosaur, which had dorsal and tail fins, and the long-necked plesiosaur. The pterosaurs, another group of reptiles including the pterodactyl, took to the skies, flying on membranous wings with spans of up to 11-12 m (36-39 ft). The small herbivorous ornithopods continued with little change to the very end of the age of the dinosaurs, apart from a remarkable development that took place in all the ornithischians. This was the development of muscular cheeks, grinding teeth and the formation of a secondary palate separating the nasal passages from the main cavity of the mouth, which allowed them to breathe and chew food at the same time. Another change that occurred during this period was the appearance of large ornithopods, such as the herbivorous iguanodon. From the evidence of footprints the large ornithopods lived in herds of up to 30 individuals, and such numbers must have afforded protection against predators. An alternative method of defense was illustrated by the stegosaur, which had two pairs of sharp spikes at the end of its tail. The stegosaur also had a double row of vertical bony plates (in some cases spines) running down its back and tail, but it is thought that these were primarily for display. The Cretaceous period A more solidly armored type developed in the Cretaceous period (135-65 million years ago). This was the ankylosaur ('fused lizard'), so called because the thick bony plates covering its back and tail were often fused into a solid sheet over the pelvic region. From the small bipedal herbivorous ornithopods there eventually evolved such giants as the three-horned triceratops with its huge bony frill extending over the vulnerable neck region. Although the horns were obvious defensive structures, it is now believed that they were mainly used for trials of strength among one another. Other descendants of the small ornithopods included the bone-head dinosaurs, the tops of whose skulls were up to 30 cm (12 in) thick. The bone-heads were perfectly adapted to head butting in the manner of sheep and goats, and they probably lived in herds with a dominant male presiding. The most successful of the herbivorous dinosaurs were the duckbilled dinosaurs, which evolved from the large ornithopods. They also lived in herds, and maintained communal 'dinosaur nurseries', with the adults caring for the young in much the same way as crocodiles do today. As the herbivores became more advanced, so too did the carnivores, such as the fearsome-looking tyrannosaur, a bipedal scavenger 6.5 m (21 ft) tall. But by far the most formidable carnivores, although only 3 m (10 ft) long, were the clawed dinosaurs. Hunting in packs, and capable of leaping onto their prey, these bipedal predators bore a large sickle-like claw on the hind foot for ripping open their victims. They also had binocular vision, and well-developed brains - not all dinosaurs had the walnut-sized brain of the stegosaur. Extinction One of the greatest unsolved problems relating to the dinosaurs is why they suddenly vanished 65 million years ago. Numerous theories have been put forward, from changes in plant life that made the dinosaurs constipated, to small mammals eating up their eggs. One of the most popular theories is that the Earth was struck by a large meteorite, 15 km (9 mi) in diameter. This idea is based on the discovery of a thin layer of clay with a high concentration of iridium, a rare metal normally only found in such concentrations in meteorites. If such an object had struck the Earth, it would have thrown up a cloud of dust that could have obscured the Sun for several years. This would explain the disappearance of large land dwellers and the survival of smaller animals. The problem with this theory is that the dinosaurs had begun to decline 5 million years before their final extinction. In addition, around this time other forms of life became extinct - but these extinctions were separated by tens of thousands of years. Furthermore, they were highly selective, some groups of plants and animals apparently being unaffected. For a theory of extinction to carry conviction, it must take into account the exact timing of extinctions and their curious selectivity. To date no theory has been able to do this, and the disappearance of the dinosaurs remains a mystery. * GEOLOGICAL TIME CHART * EVOLUTIONARY TABLE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * REPTILES * EARLY MAMMALS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Dinosaurs **++* dX44X43X.X RX.X.X4X.4 ^X4X4 4XX44 dXX44XX WXXWXWX XX4RXX4R ^|X^XX XX44W ^9^d^ .X.XX.X ^d^^]9]3 4X4X4 W{W{XW :]:]^] OO+O+OO+ d^W]^ zzVzV O+OOV d^]^^ y+OO+OO+O X^WX4 ^^d^d ^X|^|^ OO+OOz 4X4XX Xd^]W]^] zzPzV XX4XX] X4XX^ ^d^d^ ,+,P, W++O+ WWX]X d^d^d ^^d^d WXWWX X^X]WW XX^d^d dd^9^ VzVVPVUt ^W4X| 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Turtles may travel thousands of kilometers a year, but they do so at such a leisurely pace that barnacle larvae are able to settle on their shells and grow. Reptiles (1 of 4) Reptiles have succeeded in making a complete break from water by developing two features lacking in living amphibians - scaled waterproof skins and shelled yolk-bearing eggs. It is particularly due to these developments that reptiles have succeeded in adapting to a far wider range of habitats than amphibians. The class Reptilia is divided into four orders: Archosauria (the crocodilians - crocodiles, alligators and the gavial, or gharial); Chelonia (the chelonians - turtles and tortoises); Squamata (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids); and Rhynchocephalia (the tuatara). Of the 6250 or so species of reptile, over 95% are lizards or snakes. Anatomy Reptilian scales are developments of skin keratin (a protein also found in hair, nails, hooves, etc.). Scales are small and granular in many lizards, smooth and iridescent in snakes, and large, thick and shield-like in tortoises and alligators. Scales may be periodically shed in flakes, or - in the case of snakes - cast off in a slough of the whole skin. The vertebral column of reptiles is well developed, with snakes having up to 450 vertebrae, each with a pair of ribs. Like fish, birds and amphibians, reptiles have a single passage (the cloaca) through which eggs and sperm are released, and body wastes expelled. Almost all reptiles have tails. Most lizards and all crocodilians have four well-developed limbs, with up to five toes on each. Chelonians have powerful limbs, often heavily clawed for digging, or beautifully adapted as paddles for life in the ocean. The limbs of snakes, burrowing lizards and amphisbaenids are absent or vestigial (reduced in size and function). The distinguishing feature of turtles and tortoises is their box-like shell, which protects the soft inner organs. It is composed of an upper section, the carapace, and a lower plate, the plastron. In many species the head, tail and limbs can be withdrawn into the shell for safety. An obvious feature of snakes and some lizards is the forked tongue. This is flicked rapidly in and out of the mouth, carrying odor molecules to a special sense gland in the roof of the mouth. The 100 or so species of amphisbaenid, or worm lizard, have their scales arranged in rings, lack limbs and are blind. They burrow in forest floors or sandy, dry or desert areas. The tuatara of New Zealand is the most archaic reptile, with little change in structure since it first appeared in the Triassic period, over 200 million years ago. Lizard-like in appearance, tuataras have a third eye underneath the skin in their forehead. They also have a much lower metabolic rate than other reptiles: they have been known to live for over 75 years, and their eggs take 15 months to hatch. * DINOSAURS * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture p134-2 ftsTitleOverride Reptiles (page 2) ftsTitle Nile Crocodile grasping its prey. All crocodiles are predators, often hunting at night and in the water. Adult crocodiles are likely to prey on waterfowl and on mammals, but only occasionally on humans. They capture water animals in their jaws with a sideways movement of the muzzle. To catch land animals they remain very still at the edge of the water or float past, looking much like a log, and, with a swift blow of the tail, knock the unsuspecting prey into the water. Reptiles (2 of 4) The life cycle of reptiles Fertilization in reptiles is internal, and follows a courtship ritual in which female chemical signals called pheromones and tactile stimulation are important. The annual mass-mating of American garter snakes is a striking example of this. Clutches of eggs are laid, usually in holes in the earth or in mud. Reptilian eggs are well protected by chalky or leathery shells. Within the shell, the embryo is surrounded by the amnion, a membrane that assists gas exchange. Wastes are collected in another membranous sac, the allantois. These membranes are characteristic of the amniote vertebrates, which also include birds and mammals. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not pass through an aquatic larval stage, and the hatchlings are miniatures of the parents. Many species of lizard and snake are ovoviviparous - they retain their eggs in the oviduct during the development of the young, which hatch as the eggs are laid. A few species of skink (burrowing lizards) are viviparous - they have placenta-like arrangements in the oviduct, similar to those of mammals, supplying nutrition to the developing young. Most species of sea snake hatch their young within the body, so they do not have to leave the water to breed. Most reptiles abandon their eggs. There are exceptions, however. All crocodiles provide nests for their eggs and protect them until they are ready to hatch. A female may also respond to the call of her young at hatching time, and help them to emerge from the eggs. Some species of crocodile also provide parental care after hatching. Cobras and the Indian python coil themselves around their eggs and warm them by rapid muscle tremors. Distribution and habitat Reptiles are ectotherms - they are dependent on their surroundings to maintain their normal body temperature, and are therefore generally cold-blooded. They actively seek warmth when they are cold and avoid it if there is a danger of overheating. If the body temperature of a reptile falls below the optimum (between 25-30 degC/75-85 degF for most reptiles), metabolic functions are reduced and the animal becomes sluggish. Reptilian kidneys are highly efficient at water conservation, however, so reptiles have been able to exploit colder, hotter and drier conditions than amphibians. Many reptiles, including certain turtles, tortoises, snakes and lizards, hibernate during the colder months, slowing their metabolism dramatically. 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U-11U1 U1U1- -1-1-1-11- U11-1 1-U11 U1-11-1-1 U1U-U11 -1-11 1-11U -11U1 11-11 1U11U1 -1-11 -11U11Q -1U1U11U U11U11U1 U1U11 U1U1U1-11U 1U1U1U1U U11U1- U1-11U1U1U 1U1U11U Q1-1Q U1U1U11 -11U1U11 -U1U11U1U 11U11U11U1 U1U11U1U1U 1U1U1U1 U11U11U1U U1U1U 1U1U1U1U U11U11U U1U1U1U1U1 U1U1U1U1U1 1U1U1U1U1U U1U1U1U1 1U1U1U1 1U1U1U p134-3 ftsTitleOverride Reptiles (page 3) ftsTitle The red diamondback, a venomous front-fanged rattlesnake. The pit visible at the front of the snout houses one of two heat-sensitive organs used to detect prey at night. The distinctive rattle is used to warn intruders of the snake's presence. Reptiles (3 of 4) Most reptiles are carnivorous, eating invertebrate and vertebrate prey, their particular diet being related both to size and to habitat. Some are herbivores, including many land tortoises and the marine iguana of the Galapagos Islands. Snakes can open their mouths very wide, owing to elastic ligaments between the lower jaw and the skull, which enables them to swallow large prey whole. Anacondas and pythons can even swallow prey the size of young deer and goats. Pit vipers and boas locate their prey at night using a pair of sense organs in pits on their snouts, and are able to detect temperature differences of as little as 0.2 degC (0.36 degF). They can pinpoint the position of prey at distances of around half a meter (20 in) by comparing signals from left and right pits. Saltwater reptiles such as sea snakes, marine turtles and the marine iguana need to have some means of excreting the salt they take in. Snakes and lizards achieve this through a nasal gland of birds, and turtles by weeping highly salt tears. Movement Snakes move on the ground or in trees or water by using their ribs, side muscles and body scales in various combinations. The sidewinder of southern USA and Mexico minimizes contact with hot sand by sideways wriggling and throwing its body forwards. Some snakes, such as the black mamba of Africa, can exceed 16 km/h (10 mph) for short bursts by lifting the front of their bodies off the ground and 'running' on their ribs. Sea snakes have bodies flattened from side to side and wriggle through the water. Lizards are generally agile when warmed up. The South American basilisk can even run on its hind legs on water - hence its local name, the Jesu Cristo lizard. With their streamlined shape, marine turtles make graceful and powerful swimmers. Using their strong forelimbs as synchronized paddles, they travel many thousands of kilometers a year. Escape and defense Although many lizards have sharp teeth, most rely on their agility to escape predators. A varied repertoire of other defense strategies is also found, however. Some chameleons resemble dead leaves, while others alter their skin color in response to changes in their surroundings. The frilled lizard of Australia stands on its hind legs, opens its brightly colored mouth, and expands its neck ruff to scare away predators or rivals. The hooded scaly-foot, another Australian species, resembles a snake, and closely mimics the threat display of a certain poisonous cobra. Only two species of lizard - the Gila monster and beaded lizard of the drylands of the southern USA and Mexico - have poisonous bites, with venom glands located in the lower jaw. A defensive mechanism known as autotomy allows some lizards to cast off a length of tail, which breaks off at a fracture plane running through the tail vertebrae. The discarded tail continues to wriggle as the lizard makes its escape. The soft part of the tail regrows, although never to the original length, but the vertebrae are not replaced. Snake poisons The salivary glands of many snakes produce venom. The chemical composition of snake venom varies from species to species. The usual effects of snakebite are paralysis of muscles and breathing, and damage to blood and body tissues. However, although thousands of people die each year as a result of snakebite, most snakes are in fact more likely to flee humans than to attack them. In front-fanged snakes, two very large teeth swing down like the blades of a penknife as the mouth opens wide, and the snake stabs its prey and injects venom in a single movement. The front-fanged cobras are particularly feared because - in addition to biting - they can spit their venom accurately over distances of more than a meter (over 3 feet). Rear-fanged snakes inject venom through grooved teeth closer to the throat, and are less dangerous to humans. * DINOSAURS * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture Pt(tPL (PLPx Tx0tT xTtTtT tTtpPt tpPt(tLPPL ,t(t,qPP(P ,xttL TtpPxt,p xTtPtptLtP ptH,l ,p,tLP,LPt 1xUx,tLt TxtxP ptPpxPp,P TtLtPLtP(t (,LPt(t,p, PLPtPptTtx xxtPxxPx PH$,tLt HPLt(,tHPL PLPP(,PL,p x,H,p THP($,$PLP t(t,LPx Tx,PLlT Ttt(t $$,PL t,tpPpPTtP 0P,pQ $$,pH tLtPp TT,tPpPxtU Pt(,$$ P0x0,pHtpP PpttLt,( PHPpPp ,PPt(tuy x,L,, PpPP,L xPP0tx UxTPUPLt L,P(P,(PL Ppt(-P,P ,(t,0,Px tPx-P1xT ,(P,p,L,T uy1y] ,TtLllP $,(P,(P, ttLt( P(PH, (P(,L,t P,H$l PxtpT xUxPt T$HPpT TP,$HP Px,H,pt tp,t(t LtPtpP Tt,0T LtPL$ xtp,p tLP$P L,PT,(P t,x$, LPLH,HP xtLtT ,0T,T,L, HPtTxt 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T,TPTt0TPP (,P(,P(P,L ,,L,P$P, (P,(P, P$,,P( $P(,H, Tt0,x,P(T, (,P(, P(,,L,,L,P P(P,(P, $,$,L$($ P,(T0t0,( L,P(,P(P, L,,L,, (P,,P $,$,L,$P, $,$,($, P,(Tt(P, ,P(,,L,,L, $$P$,L ,L,L$,$,$ P,(P( ,$,L, P(P,L ,,(P,(t $(P,L,P( P(P,L,,L, (P$,P (,P(P($ ,L,P(P, $P,(, t(PP(,,L, P$,(P(PP( $,$,(,P( P(P,(P, L,P(P,L, ,P(,PLP,(P (P(P,($,$$ (P,L,,L, L$,P(,P(P, L,,L,P(P, $,(P,LP, $,$P($ ,(P,(, ,L$P$, 0P0P,L, P,$,P(P,L ,P(P,L,P (P,L,P p134-4 ftsTitleOverride Reptiles (page 4) ftsTitle Reptiles (4 of 4) CHAMELEONS Mainly found in East Africa and Madagascar, chameleons are bizarre-looking creatures that have adapted superbly to life both in trees and on the forest floor. Equipped with excellent natural camouflage, arboreal species grip branches by means of their pincer-like toes and prehensile tails. Special cells in the skin may be contracted or relaxed under nervous control, so producing a range of colors to match the animal's surroundings. Capable of remaining immobile for hours on end, chameleons vigilantly watch for prey or predator. Their eyes stand well out from their sockets, protected by bulging fused eyelids with a central round hole. The eyes can move in completely different directions from one another, or can be rotated forward to gauge the distance to an insect or small bird with binocular precision. Suddenly, the chameleon's hollow tongue, usually kept collapsed on the floor of the mouth, is shot out, mucus-laden, and retrieves the prey, returning to the mouth like a piece of elastic. * DINOSAURS * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture H,L,H$,$ ,,M$,$,HH,L H,,HP,L$$,,$,L$,$,l$,p,t(H,(H,L$,H, l,Lt(t tPpQ-t,p,MPt(t,t(,L,p,PH,H,H,(P$,L$ HP$,L,PH,(P, PP(,HPL,HPLP,t(PL,L,p,PH,H,pt, P$t(P( tL,(P,P(PPp$H,LHPP(PLtP(P PPLPPp,p,PpPLPL,P,HPL,t(PLPPPL,,HH,LtH,,$P P(PP(,p$,p$,L P(PH,L,L,p$,p,Ht$P P$P(P$P(,(PH,L,P( P$P(P L,(P,P($,,L$,HP(P(,P( P(H,(P(,P$P,LPp LP$,(P,$P,(H,L$,($PL H,$P(P(PH,,L,$P(P,P P$,,$,( $,$P(,P$, ,$$$,$,($,$P (,L$,LH$,L$,(P$, ,H,(,L$,L L,L,$,( P($PHH,L,($t$P$,$,,LH,H,$,P(t-L Pp,q,tPLPP(t(tH, ,($P(,$P(H,(H 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,P(H,PH,HH,H,Ht,H,P(t,H,H$P H,P(H,HH,$,P$ ,H,$H,HP$$,$$P$ ,P$,$,P(H,$,P$,P$P$$$P,$$$,$$,$,P$P $,H,H P$,P$ ,$$$,$$, $$,$,$$,$,$,$ P$$$, p136-1 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Sea and Air (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A bald eagle, the only eagle solely native to North America. Birds of prey, such as vultures, condors and eagles, have broad, splay-feathered wings, perfectly suited to soaring and floating on thermals over land. Eagles typically soar until they sight prey on the ground, whereupon they swoop down to stun and kill it. Birds 1. Birds of the Sea and Air (1 of 4) Birds are four-legged vertebrates, with the forelimbs adapted as wings. They share a common ancestry with reptiles - the first bird, the archaeopteryx, had many characteristics in common with certain dinosaurs - and, in common with reptiles, birds have the characteristic of laying eggs in which the developing embryo is protected by a fluid-filled bag. Unlike reptiles, however, birds are warm-blooded, generating their body heat from the breakdown of their food - a feature they share with mammals. Of the 28 orders and 8600 species that make up the class Aves, to which all birds belong, 6 orders and nearly 15% of species are birds of the sea and air. Four of these orders, with nearly 500 species, are made up primarily of sea birds: Sphenisciformes (penguins; 18 species); Procellariiformes (albatrosses, petrels, shearwaters, fulmars; 100 species); Pelecaniformes (pelicans, gannets, frigate birds, boobies, cormorants, shags; 60 species); and Charadriiformes (shore and island birds such as waders, gulls, terns and auks; over 300 species). The birds of the air - including many of the most accomplished flyers, some of which spend the greater part of their lives airborne - are classified in two orders: Falconiformes (falcons, hawks, eagles, condors, vultures; 300 species) and Apodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds; almost 400 species). Aerodynamics The wings of flying birds create lift in exactly the same way as the wings of an aircraft - by causing air to move faster over the convex upper surface than the concave lower surface. Forward thrust is provided as the wings are flapped down and back. The wings are attached to the body by mobile shoulder joints, by the wishbone (or furcula), which increases the spring of the wing beat, and by massive pectoral muscles, attached to a deep breastbone. Greatly lengthened and fused digits form the outer third of the wing, supporting the main flight feathers. Maneuverability is assisted by rotation of the wings at the shoulders, angulation of the tail, and alteration of the position of the tail and flight feathers. The wings of birds of the sea and air are shaped to make the most of their habitats. Albatrosses, terns and swifts - airborne for much or most of their lives - have long thin wings for gliding on the trade winds of the oceans. Vultures, condors, buzzards and eagles have broad splay-feathered wings for soaring and floating on thermals over land. The effortless soaring of the wandering albatross - with a massive wingspan of over 3 m (9 3/4 ft) - contrasts sharply with the extraordinary aerobatics of the tiny hummingbirds, some of which can even fly backwards. Birds adapted to swimming and diving in the sea are often stubby and bullet-shaped, with blade-like wings and streamlined bodies. Auks, guillemots, puffins and penguins are typical, with webbed feet far back on the body, giving them an upright posture on land and excellent steering abilities in water. * BIRDS 2 * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ,yU1- MTy,y -1-1- 1-,11 11--11-- -11-1 1-11- 1-1-- -,1-1- -11-1-1 1-1-1-1 -1-1- -1-11 -,-1- 11--1- -1--1 11-1-11- U1-11- -,11-1- 11-11-1- 1--1-11-1- ,-1-1- -1-1-,1-, 1-1-11-1 1-1-1 -Y1U1 11--1-1-1- -11-1 1-1-- -11-1- -1-1-1-1- 1-1--11 -11-1- 1-1-1- -11--11- -1-1- ]y11- -11-1 -1-1-1-1-1 -1-1-1 --,-- Q1,0u --T-0QxT 11-11 -11U11- -11-11-11- 1-11--1-, -P1Q0 -10Q0U -1-11- 11011,U1yy Q1UU-1 -11-1 U,U,yT --1-1-11 U0yUU-1 Q0Q01U0 yy11U 1-11-11-,- 1-11-1 U1V12 U11-- -1-1- -1--1-1 P-P1yUyyU 1UU^U -1-11--1-1 -11-11 1P--TUyyx --1-1U 0yUy1yU yUy0y- T11U1U12 -1-11 11-11 -1-11-11- yUTyUyUy0Q yU1T1 01T1-1U11U 11-11 2V2V2V2 1-1,1 11-1- -1U1U2 -1Ux1M 1P1)P1U-- ]U1,M01P- 1P1,U 1U2U22V1U 1V12U2U U11-1 1U11U 2Y2YV:V :2V2V 22V22 2V:2V2^2 V22V22 _^^2^2 2V:2V:2 2V22V2; 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:_^^; :^_^^; :^;^:_^ :^_^:; :^_^:; :_^^_ ^_^_^^ ^ _^c^ :_:_:: _:2;^2;: 3^3:W:3^ ;2_::3^:; ^ ^ ^ 2^2^2 2^2^:^2^2^ 2^2^_V:_2 :_:^_^ : ^_ _b_b^_^ : b_^ ; :_:^;^ 2_:V;V 3^:W:^; ^ _ p136-2 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Sea and Air (page 2) ftsTitle Emperor penguins, the largest of the penguins, are agile and rapid swimmers even under ice, where they hunt fish and squid. They leave the water only to breed and to raise their chicks on the surface of the permanent Antarctic icepacks. Birds 1. Birds of the Sea and Air (2 of 4) Anatomy The most characteristic feature of birds is their feathers. Feathers are made of keratin, the same protein as in mammalian hair and nails. Each feather has a central shaft (the quill) and its own blood and nerve supply. Many soft hair-like projections called barbs are set out in two rows, one on each side of the quill; the barbs interlock to provide insulation and minimal air resistance. Closer to the skin is a layer of soft short feathers (down), which give added insulation. Feathers (like hair) can be erected in order to regulate temperature. The flight feathers on the wings and the tail feathers have the strongest quills, in order to withstand the tremendous stresses of flight and steering. In addition, the feathers on the wings are embedded in the arm bones. To maximize insulation and water-repellence, the feathers of penguins are particularly soft and filamentous, and are closely packed on the skin. Next to a bird's tail is the preen (or uropygeal) gland, which secretes skin oil. This oil is particularly important in sea and water birds, because it waterproofs the surface feathers as a bird preens itself. The secretions from this gland may also give birds their characteristic smell, such as the muskiness of storm petrels. Several ocean-going birds such as gannets and albatrosses excrete excess salt (from seawater taken in with food) not through the kidneys, but through modified tear glands, ejecting the salt-rich fluid from their nostrils or mouth. Vision Sea and air birds have large eyes and good vision. Those that sight their prey while flying are able to detect movement and detail at much greater distances than humans. Hawks have a double fovea (part of the retina) in which there are only cones - nerve cells sensitive to fine detail in bright light - and this allows them to pinpoint their prey. Vultures have a higher magnification in the center of their field of view, enabling them to recognize prey even if it is not moving. Penguins, on the other hand, have flat corneas (the transparent part at the front of the eye) ideal for underwater vision but making them very short-sighted on land. Many sea birds are attracted to red, possibly because oil droplets in their retinal cones absorb green and blue light. Nestlings peck at red spots on the beaks of adult birds, stimulating regurgitation of food. Penguins, which make nests out of pebbles, habitually steal the 'best' ones from their neighbors' nests, and a pile of red pebbles put at one edge of a penguin rookery will rapidly migrate towards the other side. * BIRDS 2 * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture "cg> "? # bf G ----- ----- gFb?f >g>g>c#>B? bCb#> ------ c#>cBc F > F FcfG?c g" " F FbCcFcf c?j>B F >j >FbG cj F j ?j? G > j?f # ?F ? >g>cF ?f?j?j> g>bC"bC >j?j?? B?"c> b#>"?" bCj?f?f?f>c >?g>g> jbjbCf BbC>C>g jcjcjb bG F bB?bC gF "?g >cFb? B >g> f FcjbCjcbGbGcG?f>g> >fG >g> F G> ? >fFcf ? jbkbjb j > CbC > ? Cjc F ?f?B?bF? >gF cBc>f > jcj ?f -1--- j j k >f?f?bCb > > > >fG> >f j> F? bkbk >gF F ? f F b k j > F >g>?Bc f > > ? FcjcB>gF ?j?j? >gFcb > b?f? >C?j> j F F > b > C> Cc" " F>Bc B??f?Bb ---,- ----- ----- ----- b>?j?> FcjcG jcjc> fGb j F " j cF^?b bgj cB F b j b fF>fF b " ? >gj ? F>cj?b jbk jj F F Fc>g>f >j "cB ?bCF >F j >CB> j j j j j p136-3 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Sea and Air (page 3) ftsTitle A colony of guillemots on the Farne Islands. These sea birds nest in large noisy colonies on cliffs, crowding together on narrow rock ledges overlooking the sea. Each pair establishes a tiny space for a nest, often no more than a few square inches. Birds 1. Birds of the Sea and Air (3 of 4) Modern birds lack teeth. Instead, they have beaks or bills - horny coverings to their jaws - the shape of which often reflects their diet. Most ocean birds are fish-eaters, and their bills are sharp and strong, with serrated edges and often hooked tips to hold slippery fish. Pelicans dive into the sea and catch fish with their long bills, storing them in a pouch under the bill. Storm petrels of the southern hemisphere skip at the surface of the sea, collecting small fish, plankton and crustaceans. Groups of gannets dive from heights of up to 30 m (100 ft) to take shoaling fish. Ocean birds follow their food wherever it is most abundant, often to the extremes of Arctic and Antarctic seas. Coastal birds such as fulmars and auks live on rocky cliffs. Others, including terns, waders and some gulls, prefer flatter ground, while puffins live in burrows. All either catch fish by diving and swimming or gather invertebrates from the intertidal zones. The Atlantic puffin has a stout bill striped yellow and red with which it catches several fish at a time, diving underwater and swimming strongly with its wings. Waders such as the oystercatcher, redshank and avocet, all birds of Atlantic beaches, probe for crustaceans, shellfish and insects on mud flats and shores with their long beaks. Some birds are scavengers, such as the snowy sheathbill of the South Atlantic and Antarctica, which eats seaweed, carrion and young seals. Although feeding on fish at other times, its counterpart in the North Atlantic, the great skua, harries nesting and feeding birds during its own nesting season to steal their eggs, chicks and food. The frigate bird of the Galapagos Islands has a long hooked beak with which it scoops up fish, squid and jellyfish. It also terrorizes other birds into regurgitating their food, which it then steals. Many gulls have adapted to feeding on human refuse, and are steadily moving inland in some areas. Birds of prey are almost all carnivores, taking birds, reptiles, mammals, and sometimes fish. They have strong hooked beaks, and their toes, arranged three forward and one back, are armed with long sharp curving claws (talons). Old and New World vultures are carrion-eaters. They have featherless heads and necks, and sharp beaks to cope with dead animals. They belong to different families, however, their similarities being an example of convergent evolution. The small Egyptian vulture also eats animal droppings, preferring lion feces, which are high in undigested protein. The osprey is widely distributed throughout the world and eats fish, diving at them feet-first and gripping them with its claws and spiked soles. The American bald eagle is also a fish-eater, and often follows salmon on their spawning runs to catch exhausted fish. Most hawks and eagles perch or soar until they sight prey on the ground, then drop from a height to stun and kill it. Others, such as the peregrine falcon, hobby and goshawk of the northern hemisphere, are aggressive and acrobatic hunters, chasing and catching birds on the wing. Hummingbirds are nectar-sippers, some long-tubed flowers even using them as pollinators. They also eat insects, catching them in flight or on flowers. Except when nesting, swifts spend all their life in the air, and feed entirely on insects, which they catch in flight. Breeding habits Many sea and coast birds such as auks, gannets, penguins and boobies nest in huge colonies. The passage from egg to independence may take as little as six weeks, as in the North Atlantic razorbill, while albatrosses may take as long as 12 months to lay and incubate their eggs, and to rear the chicks until they can fly. The young albatross then sets off to ride the trade winds round the globe for years before it reaches sexual maturity and begins to seek a nesting site. Emperor penguins do not make nests: the single egg is transferred to a pouch between the male bird's belly and feet as soon as it is laid and then several thousand males huddle together, so that the eggs are protected from the cold of the Antarctic ice. Swifts glue their nests together with saliva. Those of cave swiftlets - used to make Chinese bird's-nest soup - are entirely made up of hardened saliva. Most birds of prey make their untidy nests in or on trees, or on rocky ledges. Sparrowhawks and peregrines have even been known to nest on the window ledges of high city buildings. * BIRDS 2 * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 0-1-111 1-01,1 ]y9U01U1- ]U11-1T 1-110 ]U01U1U11 U01UU U0-U1 11T1-0 ]U101010110U 11U1y9UU 9U1U] 11U1U-1-0 1T1U] 1T1U0 ]U0U111110U1 111-0U1T 01U11U11 11U1- aU10U0U0U1 ]U11] 11U11P1 1X11-- x1U1U1U01U 1U]U1U1U1- 111U11 1T--, 1U11U 0--1-] 11-111 11111 -1111 1111111 1U-01U]1U ]yU1y U11--11b 111-- --]U] ]U011U1 1111-11-1- ]1U-0U]0 ----1-1- aU]U1 U111111- 111U111 -11-1-1-- ]1U11 -111U1U1111-- -11119 1-019- 1]11] 1U1111- 11U0111-\ 1-1U11U11- 1U1U11- -1U1U1U1U11- 11-1119 U1U1Y1U1T1 1--111 --1111 -1111- 1111U11 1U1111 -111U 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1UY1T91199 -1-1111 11]U111 11Y1- ]U91T -111U1 1U1U9U1U1 1-1-1 ]U1U1T U1T1U ]1]11U1 p136-4 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Sea and Air (page 4) ftsTitle Birds 1. Birds of the Sea and Air (4 of 4) Toco toucan. Toucans have huge beaks, almost as long as their bodies. The beak is used to pluck fruit from branch tips, and may be important in display. Caribbean flamingo. Towering on their long thin legs, flamingos hold their beaks upside down to sieve water fleas and small fish from shallow lakes and ponds. Rufous hummingbird. Hummingbirds use their bills to reach to the bottom of tubular flowers, from which they suck nectar through their tube-shaped tongues. Gold-and-blue macaw. Parrots have powerful beaks, enabling them to lever themselves up trees and to break open the hardest nuts; however, they can also be used with great delicacy in grooming and courtship. Goshawk. Birds of prey have sharp beaks ideally suited to slashing and dismembering their prey. Their nostrils are protected from clogging with blood by tufts of feather. Black skimmer. Skimmers feed on the wing, with the lower jaw cutting the surface water and the upper jaw ready to snap down on any aquatic life that is channeled in. * BIRDS 2 * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread +PO,+,% OVPV,Q +OVzVE ++P+PVP VP++VP +{P+8 VtVPV++ Vz{{VP+, PVOVPO+ +VV+O PW,Q+Q 9;::^ ,W,,P+W +O++P+ PWVWW _^^;;^_ OWQWW{W :;]]22V W,+O%+%{ P,+O,+%z+% W%+,%%y-% XO+WP X,WQW,z-, XWQWP+PW,P X3W--W ,XWXWW- 3WWX{| V+P++$* XWQWW XWXWX W-W-, :^__^^3^ |2|WW|W-- :^e_dX: 3{WXW ,WWPQ WXXWQ XWXPW{WW, +WW{33, WW-WX XXWWVX, XWWXPXW| {^WX{ 3XWXWX- VV,WW WQ3WW-,, -X,3W WX,,QW-, P,,V{3 XWQ3|3PW- ,2+3+V -WXXWQ ]W4WX3Q3 XXWW^WWX ^Q4W3XWW-, WXW3X V++,W W4QXW3X XXW4,V3Q XW-W, ,,+V{,W 2V3V,W W2,,- V3++, V,VX^W ,++,+ W^X^_ ,+,++ ,,+-3X _54;5 ,, 4^ XO^,+P 4;Y;_;5455 V++,2 WWVP,++, ;;4^4_4;4_ ,+,VX{X, 54554__ ++O%2 %+WP2- 3P,,W ;Y5;5; :^X^545 WX+W{W 5;5_5;_ |VzzPO ,V,,+ 3;4455;5_; WVPVP+ WVWVQ ;^XX- 554_554X_ -WWXX ^W,24 {,XW,W 3WXWW2 WW^^X- 43-W3 P,+,, ztszs zztzt zzsz{ ztztz{z :@:9^c: 9@?9+ tzt{u ttsyz d@]@9 Otsztyt UtsOstz sst{Pt VPPt|X X|PW|PX ^?29?2 +OttsPsOt ztssOOzzst sOWQ| |QXQ{ @@d^d ^:?^@@d^?9 @]989@ e9@]99 ?d^]9]]8 @3]d]2 e]^@^8 ]e^5;4 5;5:; 9d:e423 d_5:-4 d99?_;_:3 4;453 --4X5 +4X44;4{ ,,_5; 5_454 +W:554 -__35;44 . 4-544 ^54_4 X5|_;_;; 44YX| ;55;_5 _4_5_5 4X55_X 3-^,3 -,--+, -3-3- ;_e_^_ {^,3-,3-3 %,-W,X,, ,,3-W-V,& ,-W-WW-+ WV3{- 5_e;;__;;e PXW-WX W,,W2 __;_;;_ P3WXWX3, P2,3|,3,34 4;__55 ,,2P,,3,4 ,43 ,- 3WXVW3 3+,,V,3-33 _;_e_;_;_; W-WXW,W+, ;_e;__;;_^ W|,^W _;;_e;_;;_ ;_;;_^_ W3-,+ 3+,-, _;5;;5;; XWX3-, ;5;5;;5;_; WXXW-W,+ ;5;_; ^XWXWX WW3W3,W32% ^__;_; ^_^3^ -3- , ;;5;_; XW3WXWX-WW Vee_;__;^; __;_:3X:;W -2 ,, ;5e5Y XXW3X W,33P ;;:4:;;_3 +-++- We;_; 4:_;^_ -2-33 Wee;_;_;;_ ;__;_;54;; ,3WW3, ;;5;;5;; Ve;^;_;_;_ _;;_;_;54: 443 44 ,-WXW, A4;_e ^__;__;_; 4:4:43- A5;_; e_e;^__; __;_;;__5_ ;4;4_4:34 ,V,3, ;5;_; e_;_:_;_;_ ;:;5:_;; Y;_;;_ Y;;5;_;:;4 +3e;__^ ;_;_;;_4;^ :;5;5 4;_;__; ;_;_454:55 ;5;4;4 ^3WX3VPV, ;;^_^; ;_;_;;_ ;_;_;_;;4: ;;545 ;;^;;_ 5;;4;4:;44 :5443 44.44X+ :;;:;;5;; 34334435: ++,,P3 5;;5;4;5;4 ;4:;443 5;;5;:4;5: ;5:44 ;4;_;; ;45:5;;5;: 44:4:_;_ 43+,W- 54;;5 4;454;44 45:44 :5::5 3.__e^^_:_ ;4454; :54:5:_;3 334^_ ^4^4^^3,2; 44:44;:4;4 44;4:;5 ;::^_44, ;44:4 ;:5:5:5:5_ __4:4:^43 5:5;4: :44;^;;, ; 434^4, 445:;5:4;5 5;:5443 ;;_;_3 52,_^;:3 4;;44;455; 5:4:44334: 54_;_4:44; ;44:4:4,? :5;4:35 ;34;^;_:4 4:;5;4:,? 4;:;4:44;; :X^;;__:4X 344;;4 5:44:4_, ;44:4;4 5:5:5:54;5 ;:4;4; 54;5454;4; 4;;4;:_ _;_;;_ :5;44;:544 445:;44;4 5;34;4;; ;:53;A 44;4;44;3; 44;;4;;5 5;;:445;:5 ;3;4; 4;44344:;4 4;44B 3 :;4434 ;5;5;35:;5 44;;3;5: 3454: 34;;4;4 5;;:544;4 4:4:4^5:44 3544C 4334;;4 ;4;4;544: :;34^4;3 4433:544 34;44:5:;3 44;54 ;44345334 4344E 4 344 p138-1 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Land and Water (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A barn owl about to strike its prey, perhaps a mouse, which will be killed by the impact of the feet and then swallowed whole. Indigestible parts, such as hair and bones, will later be regurgitated in the form of a pellet. Birds 2. Birds of the Land and Water (1 of 4) Of the 8600 species of bird, about 7500 - over 85% of all species - live in close association with land or fresh water. In land and water birds, there are often clear differences between the sexes, in size, color and feather patterns. The diversity of their habitats and diets in comparison to sea birds has led to a greater range of territorial and mating behavior, as well as great variations in size, shape and aerodynamics. Most of the land birds belong to a single order (the perching birds), and it is with these that the clearest distinction between land and sea birds - birdsong - has reached its greatest development. The order Passeriformes (perching birds) contains between 4500 and 5000 species - more than half of all bird species. Three orders of birds are particularly important to man as sources of food and domesticated birds: Columbiformes (pigeons, doves; over 300 species), Galliformes (pheasants, turkeys, fowl, game birds; 270 species) and Anseriformes (ducks, geese, screamers, swans; 170 species). The members of the orders Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, frogmouths; about 90 species) and Strigiformes (owls; over 145 species) share nocturnal habits and fascinating adaptations associated with their life style. Amongst the most colorful of birds are those in the orders Psittaciformes (parrots, cockatoos, macaws; 315 species), Piciformes (woodpeckers, barbets, toucans; almost 400 species) and Trogoniformes (quetzals, trogons; 35 species). Ground and perching birds While the forelimbs of birds are modified into wings, the hind, or pelvic, limbs - the legs - are usually covered in scales and armed with curving nails, the claws. Ground birds use their claws to dig and gather food, while perching birds use them to grip branches. Three digits face forwards for propulsion, one faces backwards as a support, but is sometimes vestigial (reduced in size and function). Owls and tree-living birds such as woodpeckers and trogons are zygodactylous - the third toe also faces backwards, increasing the strength of their grip. In owls, all toes are equally well developed, with very sharp talons for grappling with prey. Parrots use their beaks for climbing, using the upper part to lever themselves up. Young hoatzin, primitive South American galliforms, have clawed thumbs on their wings, which they use for scrambling through trees. Flightless birds The 10 species of flightless birds (or ratites) are the most primitive birds, and are the remnants of a group once found worldwide. They have flat breastbones, often large leg bones and wings that are reduced in size. It is now thought that such birds were probably never capable of flying. Apart from the kiwi of New Zealand, 50 cm (20 in) tall, flightless birds range in size from 1.5 m (5 ft) to the largest living bird - the ostrich of Africa towering above humans at up to 2.75 m(9 ft). The group also includes the cassowaries of Australia and New Guinea, the rheas of South America and the emu of Australia. Their feathers are hair- or plume-like. Several females often lay in the same nest, and the eggs are then incubated by the male. The egg of an ostrich is equal in volume to 25-40 chicken eggs, while the huge extinct elephant birds of Madagascar laid eggs that weighed around 10 kg (22 lb). Some species of flying bird, such as the New Zealand rails and the kakapo, a nocturnal parrot, have become flightless, usually in island habitats in the absence of predators. Such birds are now under severe pressure both from humans and from introduced predators. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture P(TtPx ,xUHPL xTyTU xUxUt -x],1 x1U,y 11x1xUT T-Ty, T11uTy yTx1y U1T1xU}0 ]u1Py1 y10yU 0-01- y,Ux1Uy0 -yx,t U1U01 y]x0Q,p xT1UU x-x1P 1PUx1 t(U,UTPU x1x1x TxPtc Ttx,5 Tx,TPY ,pTx0xP UTTxTx xPLTxt ]x]yT y0xxUxU0y 0Ux,x,T p138-2 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Land and Water (page 2) ftsTitle Great crested grebes. Pair-bonding is essential in grebes because both parents are involved in nest building and rearing of young. The bond is formed and then reinforced by elaborate and highly ritualized courtship displays, which include head shaking, preening, diving and weed carrying. Birds 2. Birds of the Land and Water (2 of 4) Swimmers and divers Unlike sea birds such as penguins, which use their wings as flippers, propulsion in water birds is generally achieved by kicking with powerful legs. Ducks, swans and loons (divers) have webbed feet, while grebes and finfoots have fringed paddle-like toes. Most water birds dabble and dive for plants, insects, mollusks and crustaceans. Some, such as the mergansers and red-throated divers of North Atlantic and Pacific waters, dive for fish. The dipper, a passerine that hunts crustaceans and larvae in fast mountain streams in the northern hemisphere, lacks strong legs, and swims using its wings instead. Dippers and divers have flexible lenses in their eyes, allowing them to see as well under water as in the air. Like sea birds, water birds have well-developed preen glands to waterproof their feathers. Feather colors The colors of birds' feathers are produced by a combination of structural effects and actual pigments in the feather keratin. Light may be absorbed or dispersed by feathers, resulting in unshiny dark or light areas, or may be diffracted by the feather filaments, producing the marvelous iridescence and metallic sheens seen, for example, on starling and peacock feathers. Most reds and oranges result from the presence of carotenoid pigments related to vitamin A, and the light-sensitive retinal pigment rhodopsin, which comes from foodstuffs. Melanin, the dark pigment associated with keratin in mammalian hair and dark skin, is responsible for yellows, browns, greens and blues. Turacos, African birds related to cuckoos, have brilliant red and green colors different from those of all other birds. These colors are based on copper-containing pigments related to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 01T1T00 T0010 1U018U1\1T1T0UT 8x9T] T10T10U 0T0-T0 x1T\x1T1\100T1\T]0T10U\U U10U0T90U9T1 x80x010 y8U09T1 xQ0T1 1U0T0U]T x10T1T0]\ 01\18y9001 18]0090 0T90U8U\1T9 TT]U\08y]0U8U810 xU80U\U9\1 1T]8\1 0]8x1\9T0 x-\0U1\010U00U81T91T0 ]9T]8U8y89T9TU \T9x1\10U8T0 8U\T9\U8]0 9x0]0 09x001T9T9x1T9T9T0x 0T0\18T9T]\0]001 U0T10U0U01T U0]0U0U0U\0y0U09TT 1U9T10U U10]1 8y0U8U010 0]9x91 \U01\1x\01T1\8T 0y]09T8y0]T T]T9T]0]0 y8\U]T]0\T1 TUT\00U18T181 1T1x8U0U0\ 1\]T9T9U0U01U1T 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Females are attracted to the bower for mating, and subsequently care for the eggs and young unaided. Birds 2. Birds of the Land and Water (3 of 4) Bird senses For most birds, vision is the most important sense. Nocturnal birds, such as owls, frogmouths and nightjars, have large eyes with a high proportion of rods - retinal cells sensitive to movement in dim light. The barn owl's sight is up to 100 times better than a human's. Acute hearing can also be important. Owls have left and right earflaps in slightly different positions on their heads, allowing them to fix the position of noises more accurately. They also have large eardrums to amplify tiny sounds. Their feathers are very soft, resulting in almost soundless flight - an adaptation that fishing owls lack, not needing silence to catch their prey. Oilbirds, relatives of the nightjar, also rely on their hearing, although not in order to detect prey - they eat seeds and fruits. They live in dark caves where they navigate by listening to the echoes of their vocal clicks. Smell is generally poorly developed in birds, but a notable exception is the kiwi. It has very small eyes and detects earthworms and grubs by smell, having nostrils at the very tip of its long flexible beak. The part of the kiwi's brain associated with smell is far better developed than in all other birds. Parrots use their tongues a great deal, rolling nuts and seeds round in their beaks to test their shape and find a good place to start chewing. Birdsong Song is part of a bird's territorial and mating behavior. In songbirds, which make up over 40 of the 60 or so families in the order Passeriformes, the syrinx, an organ at the base of the windpipe, with its own muscles and nerve supply, is especially well developed. As air vibrates the syrinx membranes, the muscles alter their tension, allowing tones of different pitch and timbre to be produced. The chick's basic noise patterns are inherited, but more complex patterns are learned from older birds. Canaries are well known for their varied repertoire. At the end of each breeding season, brain cells die and songs are lost; at the beginning of the next season new cells grow and new songs enter the repertoire. Some birds are less selective about the sounds they copy. Starlings will even imitate the ringing of telephones, and the mynas of Asia are accomplished mimics. Members of the parrot and crow families - reckoned to be the most intelligent groups of birds - will learn and repeat phrases of human language. African grey parrots are particularly skilled and may have vocabularies of around 1000 words. However, this ability is pure mimicry, and does not indicate an understanding of human speech. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture QTTx\ ,P,p] 1PL,$ P0x,0 \x\,t ,L]xT, TT\1x x,PTy y1tTP x,PT- (xx]x0P x0T0T TPx9] yx,,p 0\0xT\8TT xTxT, t1yTx ,l08,0T $,TP, UxPP(]] xx\8x\x LP0PT ,PTP( LtPxTx TT0x0T00 Px,$Tx t,H0t ,xT|, xTtT,, x,xtT 0\tt(TU t0xTT ]P0T0 P,P,x 0,(xTyx ,p0xP P\PTt, x,t,x xTxT0 PxxT,x P,TxTtP (0P01 xTxTx Tt(T, 1x0$\ \x0T0Tx LPTxP $$,L0P 0TT\\ ,LPT, 0,T,T ,x]xT, Tt0X,TTx xTxPT0PT P0xTT,x, xTxTT0P y0xx8, ,P\xTT0P, x,PTT|x 0x,TxT, xP0$Tx] p,0tTx, TP\]T TPTTP TTx0xTx0T tLPPx,x x0P10 ,x0TT ,x,x, 0,T0x tTT\T Pa\0x ,PT,L \x]t0 T00P0TP :PLx\ 1txTx 9xT0t ]x0PP P0x0, L0|00x P0Tx` P,TTP TPU0x, T9x0y9 9]8$P ,P(t0 x]T00 ]y8xx ]],L8 ,T0]]p $t(,XTx,x ,T00T 0,L0T 0xTx] ]T0TU PTP0x P0y0x0T, 0t0P] Px,P0,x xxPxU ]8]]T ]T]TT x]0y8 ,x0PT t$HtxU 0yTP\ |0,,T y\UTx \x\T8x LTU8,t] Tx0xT ,LTT,, 0,8yT ,TP0P\ $0x,TP L,tL, \y8xx9T xU,1x 0,T0x0x] Pxt(x, x,y\xU U]^T, \P,TP 0TxTx\T ,L,P0 ]TT01 \$TU,x]x y,T0T0 tx0PP yTtTt L8TPP( xT,x, PL,TP Ty0t1T0 1x0UU]1 ,x0$xT P1,TP TT\\L tT9x81 $\x,T, T0x0x] 1UT0xU x,x0T0 TP10xPT 0T0xT0Tx0T ,,0x0,t x0t0T, PT]0xx0U,, \P10x xxTx0TUT 00UTT0 ,P0,TTyT ]yTxUx0 0UTU0T 1xxUU, xTT-,01TT x0T0tPT, Tx$Ll y0xTx\ T0xTU8 PT,PTP tx]T0yUx \x1x0P0T0P UTTx,x01T 0U0x1 Ty0TTP0x 0T,U0 0x0x\TP, QTx00P 0xT]$U xx0t0 ,xTt]U 0\TxTT1P 0\9x0 x0x0, ,xT1x0T \PTP0y yx00T )x0T\y 0x]y\y0xU xP0,T 1x0xx0xy0 T]yxTT x1yx0 TPT]y TU\x0 0yTx0U,UT, 0T,Tt 10PTUT x0yy\x0T1, xx\xx yT\P0T x\yTT y0Tx0]T 0x0xxT xxUxUx, xTyxy\ yTx\x1 Tx0x,T y\y\y0 0\TUx Tyx10yTx0T T,x0U 4Ux,xTU\U- x0t8xUT0 TU1x0 0U,0x1 U0P1xTU0 UxP00x00T, 0U0x0 y\P\x 08Tx1x01T, T,,\0T 0T,0x0yT U\TxTP0PT TUx0xPT,T 9xUTT Tx1xT ,xTxPp 9xT]y\ ,TPPTx TTUT] P0,T\ $TPPx tTx0T P(PTPT ayTT, P$\,P TQxxP y,x0P0 xTx,T t(tp0t T,(tT T$0, p0P(PT $$,p$ Ttp0x 0x,x,\0 $$xPt LTPP(x pTPxT $\pP$ xTPPpP p138-4 ftsTitleOverride Birds of the Land and Water (page 4) ftsTitle The greater bird of paradise. Mainly found in New Guinea, birds of paradise make spectacular courtship displays. The males of many species dance on branches or hang upside down and swing to and fro while shimmering their brilliant feathers. Birds 2. Birds of the Land and Water (4 of 4) Dances and displays Dances and displays are also part of territorial and mating behavior. The need for male birds to impress and attract females has led to the evolution of spectacular feather coloration and bizarre mating rituals, as in the birds of paradise and the bowerbirds. Many relatives of the chicken also have spectacular displays. Male argus pheasants of Southeast Asia and Indian peacocks attract females by spreading and vibrating their fan-shaped tails and elongated wing feathers. Males of the grouse family, such as the European blackcock and the prairie chicken of the central USA, have display grounds called leks , where all the males dance, jump and court the females. The prairie chicken stamps its feet and has a loud booming call, accentuated by orange-skinned neck pouches, which are inflated as resonators. All members of the crane family make displays - not only in the breeding season - that involve huge leaps, wing-flapping, bowing and dancing on tiptoe. Breeding behavior Apart from species such as swans and grebes, where pair-bonding is the norm and may be renewed from year to year most birds exhibit patterns of behavior or body characteristics that attract females to males that are superior in some way. Fighting for females is not always involved: European pheasant females, for instance, prefer to mate with males that have longer leg-spurs, a feature that appears to be genetically associated with greater fertility. In the case of the European swallow, it is the length of the male's outer tail feathers that determines attractiveness. Fertilization in all birds is internal, by cloacal contact - although anseriforms (such as ducks and geese) and the flightless ratites have a protrusible cloaca that serves as a penis. As the fertilized ovum passes down the female's oviduct to the exterior, it is gradually coated in various layers. First it is provided with a food supply (the yolk), and then robed in albumen (the egg white), which acts as a cushion and supplies water. The albumen is then coated in membranes (to offer protection against bacteria), and finally covered in several shell layers. Shells are protective and waterproof, but have pores and allow gas transfer. The eggs are incubated in a nest, mostly by the female, who may strip feathers off her breast to improve transfer of heat from her skin. Many species of cuckoo are parasitic - they lay their eggs in the nest of a bird of another species, leaving the young to be reared by the foster parent. An unusual method of incubation is found in the mallee fowl and scrub fowl, both members of a strange family restricted to Australasia and Indonesia. They build huge mounds of vegetation or earth (depending on habitat) in which females lay their eggs. The male then guards his mound and tests the temperature with special heat-sensors on his back: too hot, and he scrapes off material; too cool, and he builds up the mound. The mallee fowl chick can fly within a day of hatching. In most other bird species, however, chicks are helpless and are fed by one or other parent until their flight feathers emerge and they are ready to leave the nest. 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UTTPTxt,p ,P(,pT, ,xPLt0$ p,xt,p,(P( PxPTP t(P,p tTTPLP ,L,PP(t PtLt(tP ,0PTt xx,LP,x0, (,tLx, ,LTtP tT0t,P(t(P tPxPxPL,( t0,PLT TPpPx PTttTt, pTP,P(P, PTt(t( P(tPP,P ,t,x,0tTP xUT00t T,0Px TtTPtL L,P(t, P0tLx, xxTPTxx ,TTxxTx,PT ,0PPtp UtPpt,P 0x,P,p y0u0, P,T0P, tTU0,, P(TT, TTPtx,x PtP-t Pxt0P 0TTx,Lx- yPxxt P0(P,T TP,LP 0xPy, Ux,L,(P Ttt0tPP (,tPLt(xTt $TTxx P,p0y L,LP,t ,P(t( TPPpxP ,Ltx,0xPt P,TTP(x 0PPLP, y,TPP xPT|,x PTPxxTP PTP,P, TU1t(P,P ,txUT Pt(,TP0y0 yTy,y0 |,pt0,(P ,(x,P 0P,LU y00U0 y0xy,0 tP,$$ Tt0P( PPxPP TP,xPt( ,PPTP p140-1 )x*N+T. ftsTitleOverride Early Mammals (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Early Mammals (1 of 2) The word mammal is derived from the Latin mamma ('the breast') and refers to the fundamental feature of the group: the production of milk from the mother. In virtually all mammals the fetus develops inside the uterus (womb) of the mother. The exceptions are the monotremes, which - like their reptilian ancestors and the birds - lay eggs. In the marsupial mammals the fetus is surrounded by a thin membrane within the uterus, and is kept in a pouch when born. In the placental mammals, which comprise the vast majority of modern species - including man - nutrients and oxygen are passed to the fetus via an organ within the uterus called the placenta. In order that the young can suckle and breathe at the same time, the food and air passages of mammals are separated by a bony secondary palate. This also allows food to be processed in the mouth, and mammals have developed different types of teeth for accomplishing different tasks: incisors for biting, canines for stabbing and cusped teeth ( premolars and molars) for chewing and grinding. Mammals are warm-blooded, maintaining a constant internal temperature (homoiothermy) by means of a high metabolic rate in conjunction with an insulating covering of hair or fur. The final characteristic of the mammals is their intelligence: the neocortex (that part of the brain responsible for intelligence) is more highly developed in mammals than in any other kind of vertebrate. The ancestors of the mammals The first reptiles that conquered the land about 295 million years ago were the mammal-like reptiles or paramammals. From the detailed structure of paramammal skulls it is presumed that the mammals originated from them. All early paramammals were carnivores, the smallest ones feeding on insects and worms, the larger ones on the smaller reptiles. However, by about 250 million years ago one major group, the dicynodonts ('two dog tooths'), had become herbivores. By the Triassic period, 235 million years ago, the paramammals - such as the mainly carnivorous cynodonts ('dog tooths') - were much more mammalian in their appearance: in the structure of their skeletons, their stance and gait, their feeding and chewing, and in the inferred development of warm-bloodedness, fur, and possibly milk production. In one of the most striking faunal turnabouts in the history of life on Earth, the paramammals began to go into a serious decline. By the Jurassic period, 185 million years ago, only a few herbivores had managed to survive. In place of the paramammals had come the dinosaurs, which emerged about 205 million years ago and which were to dominate life on land for the next 140 million years. The first mammals It was during the later Triassic, about 220 million years ago, that the first true mammals appeared. Throughout the age of the dinosaurs, the mammals remained small, and were shrew-like or rat-like in appearance and life style. Because of their fur and warm-bloodedness, they could adapt to nocturnal activity, unlike the cold-blooded dinosaurs. By the end of the Cretaceous, 65 million years ago, the first primate, Purgatorius, had made its appearance. This bore a striking resemblance to a present-day group of mammals, the tree shrews. When the dinosaurs became extinct at this time, and the ecological niches they had occupied became vacant, the mammals began to extend their range and to adapt themselves to a wide range of habitats. They were by no means dominant at first: for a time giant flightless flesh-eating birds - about 2 m (6 1/2 ft) tall and with skulls as large as horses' heads - were the dominant carnivores. In spite of this the mammals were able to establish themselves. The age of the mammals begins When the dinosaurs had begun to spread over the planet, all the continents were united in the single land mass of Pangea: in contrast, when the age of mammals began 65 million years ago, the continents were separate. Similar-looking mammals evolved independently on the different continents to fill the same kinds of niches. Although not directly related, these animals would have shared a common ancestor. Hence, for example, on the grasslands of South America there were animals resembling modern camels, horses, rhinoceroses and elephants, and even a large marsupial cat. There were also unique creatures, such as the giant ground sloths and armored glyptodonts, which survived into historic times. A major event in the history of the mammals occurred during the Miocene epoch, 23 million years ago, when Africa collided with Eurasia at either end of what is now the Mediterranean. This new land connection allowed the mammals of Europe and Asia to invade Africa, and by the same token the unique African mammals, the elephants and apes, migrated north to conquer Eurasia. The grasslands Fundamental changes in mammalian life came about with the gradual replacement of forests and woodlands by grasslands during the late Oligocene and early Miocene epochs (28-18 million years ago). Horses, which had been browsers of leaves, became long-legged, fast-running grazers. The same basic changes occurred among the cattle and antelopes. As well as being able to run fast, they were able to observe the approach of predators over large distances on the open grasslands. This had startling consequences for the main groups of carnivores, which in fact became extinct. In this new environment there was a premium on intelligence, and it was on the grasslands that modern cats and dogs evolved in the Miocene epoch (23-5.3 million years ago). Neither cats nor dogs can catch their prey by simply chasing it - they do not have the speed capability. Instead they use complex stratagems: dogs hunt in packs, and cats, although solitary, use cunning and stealth to pounce on their victims. Another consequence of the great reduction of forests was that the tree-dwelling primates found themselves on open grasslands. But because of their intelligence and ability to work together in teams, the savannah-living apes of the Miocene epoch in Africa and Eurasia were able not only to survive but to spread over vast areas. The present-day game reserves of East Africa - with their great variety of specialized mammals - represent the type of ecosystem that first arose in the Miocene grasslands. This diversity came to an end in most parts of the world with the ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch,1.6 million to 10,000 years ago. * EVOLUTION * DINOSAURS * MAMMALS * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY * HUMAN PREHISTORY * PREHISTORIC ART Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Mammals South American ,-2-3, -2,-2, :^:^d ^^:,,-^3-3 X3X^_ d_d_e ^e^e^e_ 4:4^^ ^3-3-4W ^4^X43 de^ede **++* W]WX^ XX^^W^ X^WWX^] X^W^WXW WWXX]^ X]WXXW^W^ ^^WW4^ WXWX9^ ^]XWXWW^ ^WXX]XWXX^ ^^e^^ ^WXW^WXWX^ ]XWX3X^3 X^W^WX W^X]X^^ W^WX] XXWX34W^ WWXWXXWXW WX]X]XWX XWXW^X^]XW W43WX ^^X^X]XWX ]X^^W^ ^XWXWX 4^WXW^ W^WW^XWXW^ ^]^WXW X^W^X^ ^W^WXX ^XXWW X^X^XWXX^ ^X]^]^^ XWWX3]3X]X ]XXWWX]X]X ^W^W^ 3W^W^ W3WXWWX]XX WX]3W^XW^X ]XW^^W X]^X^^X^]^ ^^X]X^]X WX^WXW3W3W 3WXW^W^W^X XWX]X^ ^^W^] ^]X^]^ X]^X^WXWWX 3XWXW^X]X] ^d^^WX ^^X^WX^^ ^W^X^^XWX^ 3XWWXW^WX] X^W^WX]X ^]X^X ^WX^^ XWXW3 XXW^^X ^^X^W ^^XW^^X^ ^^X^XW^ W3^^W ^^X^^X WX3WW3X ^W4WXX ^WX^X ^^X^^W WXW^] ^W^W^ WX^X^^ ]3X3W ^X^X^ ^W^X^ ^X^X^X^W3W 3W3WW3W X3WWXWW3W ^X]WXWX ^X^^WW^X X^X]WW^|^^ ^XW3W^^X] X^WWX^ ^^X^W^^X] ^^X^XX^X^X XWWXWXW^ X^X^^ |X^XWX^ X]XWX ^XWXW^ WXWX^ ^XXW^ XW^XW^ ^XX^W XX^W^]X WW3WW W3X3WW3W W4WX^ ^X^X^ X^^|^X] XW4WWX^ ^XW^X^W^ X^X^X XWXW]WW]XW ^|^X^ ]XWW3 ^XW:WX3 ^W^X^XX^W XWXWXWX^ ^XWXWX^W^W ^^X^] ]XX]W WXXW^ W^XW^XWXWX ^^X^X X]XW^ ^WWX^ XWXW^WX^WX ^X^WXWX^W^ ^]W^^ XXWXW XWXWX^ XXW^W ^W3WW W33W^W WW3WW ^X^X] X^XX^X ^WXXWW^X^W ]W^^X XWXWXWXW^ XWXWX^ 3WWX^|^X^W XW]X^ ^X^XX^ ^^XWXXW XX^X^ XXW^XWX^^W WXWXX ^XWXWX^XW ^W3W] ^^XX^ WX^^WW^^ ^W33W WW^X^X^]X^ W^XWW^ ^W^XWXWW^X ^X^X^ XW3X^ X^^XX^WW^W X]XX^ ^XX]X^ WW3X^ XWWX] XW3WX^^X^ X^^X^XW X]^WW^X^X^ X]W^X^X^W^ WWX^X W]XWXWXW XWWXXWW^ ^WWX^^ ^^XX^X^^ WX^^X ^W33WW ^WXWXW X^Q3W3Q3 3WX^WW] W3WX^ WW3W3W3WW ^W^^X XWX3X3X W:WWX ^W4W4WXW ^X^X^ ]X^WX W3W3Q XWW^X^ W3W3XWXWX] XWW^^ XW4W3WX WXWXWXW3WW XWX^W^ XWXWWX XW3W3W3W] ^X]X] ^XWXW4 XXW^W 3XWXXW^X WXWXX^W3W^ W4WW4W4^WX XW^W^^ W]W3XW ]XXW^ 3WW3XW WWXWXW XXWWXX |^^X^ W^X3W X^XWX W3WXXWXX^ ^WXW] 3WWXW33W4 3WXWX^W ^W]WXX WXWW^ ^^WW^ WW3WW3 ^^X]WX^X]X X^^XW^ WXX^XWXW^ ^WXW^X^^W^ WXWWX^W^ WXW4WX WXWWXWWXWX X^^X^^ WXWX] ^X^^W X^X^XX W33XX^ XW^XW]X^W^ ]W4WW^ ^]XWWX^ X^X^^ WXW]W ,VWV, ,++,2 |XV,++, XVV++, W]{V,++ V^V,V WV,+,+ +,+,+ ++,++, ,+,V,+W W+,++ QW|XV, +,,+, ++,V++ VXXVWV ,,+VW ,++,VV ,VW,+, V,WVV ,+WW+, V++WV ,+VV+, V,++W ,V,+W W++,W V+,++,++ ,++,V+%+ WV++, ++,VV, V,+,VV ++,VV+ ,+,++ +,++P ,++W,++ ,++%+ V,++&2 WVW+W W+VW++, W++%+, ,++,++ W+,++, |XV,+ ,+%++,+Q W++%+,W %+%,W %,+,+ ,VW,WV, W+,+,+, ,%+,+ ++,+,+Q ,++%,VW ,V,++% ,,VV+,V, V+,+,V ++,++ +,,+,, +%,+,+ ,%,+, ,+,++,++,% ++,+,+ V++,+%,+ +,++,++ ,++,+ ++%++% ,++%+ V,VV,, %,%+& W+,W,,2 +,+,++, ,+,VV ,,+,++,++W ,+,+W ,%++, ,+,+,+ ,+,+,+ VWV,VW ,+,+, ,+,+,+ ,+,,W W+,VW|WW ++%++, ,W,,V %,+,++% +,++,+ %+,W+ +,+,+, ,+,+,+ +,+,+,+ W,+,+- ,,3Q3{ ,%,+%+ ,%,++%,+ ++,+, ++,+,+, +V,,++W W+,+, ,+,+,+, ++,+,+ ,+,+, ,++,+, ,%+,+V W,,+V WV,++, +,+,+ +,++, ,+,+%++2 ,++,+,+,+, ++% + ,+,++,+,+ ,+&++, +,+,+ +,V,++ ++,%+,V +,,+W ,,+%+&++, ,++&+&+, ++,++,+,+ +,+,+, ,%++, ,+,,+,+V ,+,++,+,+ ,++,,+,% %++,+ ,++,++, ,+&+, ,%,++,+,,+ ,+,++W +&+%,+,+ ,++,%, ,+,,%, ++,%, ,%+,%,++ ++,+,+ +,,+W %++,, ,+,+,W ,+WW++ +%+&+, +,+,+, +,+,+,+ &+%+,+ ,++,, W+,+%, +&+&+ +,+,+,+, +,+,+ ,+,+,+2 V,+%,++,+ ,++,V+ ,+,%, ,++,+,+, +,+,+,+ ++&+, ,+,+,&,W %+%+,++,%, ,+,+,% +%,+,++, ++%++ ,,++,,+,+, ++%,++,+, +,,+, ,VW,+, +,+,+,+ V,+,+ +&++&+, +&+,+,+ ,++,+ p140-2 ftsTitleOverride Early Mammals (page 2) ftsTitle Early Mammals (2 of 2) The epoch of the ice ages During the wide range of conditions and types of plant life that follow one another with dramatic climatic change, it is hardly possible for any animal to specialize on one type of food or indeed to specialize at all on anything. The key to survival and success is to be adaptable, not adapted, and so it was the generalists rather than the specialists that dominated life in the Pleistocene. Cattle (in the form of bison in North America), sheep and pigs were the key herbivores everywhere, and the most adaptable of the carnivores - the cats and dogs - held their own by virtue of their superior intelligence. But it was the rats and mice that became the most numerous and successful of all the mammals. One other highly adaptable mammal, with an ability to use tools and harness fire, also began to emerge: man. When the ice caps spread from the polar regions into central Europe, the permafrost and tundra reached as far south as the Alps and Himalaya. The great plains of Eurasia and North America were inhabited by woolly mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses, which grazed on the tundra - the tundra at this period supported a much richer plant-life than it does today. These large mammals were preyed upon by carnivores such as the saber-toothed cat, with its long stabbing canine teeth. Caves became important as shelters for many animals, including humans and the large cave bears that they hunted. Indeed, much of our detailed knowledge of the appearance of ice-age mammals comes from the figurines of Cro-Magnon man of 30 000 years ago, and from later cave paintings. Why are many of these great mammals of the Pleistocene no longer around? One theory suggests that they were victims of man's improving technology and were simply hunted to extinction: these extinctions seem to correlate with the advent of the hand-axe culture of early man and his use of fire. With the end of the last Ice Age 10 000 years ago, the plant-rich tundra disappeared, and this may also have contributed to the extinction of so many species. * EVOLUTION * DINOSAURS * MAMMALS * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY * HUMAN PREHISTORY * PREHISTORIC ART Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Mammals Ice Age **++* VVWWV WP,WWV ++,,V ,++WW ,++,+VV {VWVV| OO++O+O O+O+O+ +O++O +O++O+ O+O+O O+O++ O+OO+OO+O +OO+O+O+O O++OO+O++O +O+O+O+ +O+O+ O++O+O+O +O+O+O O++O+P +O*O+O ++O+O+O++O O+O+O+ +O++O +OO++O+O++ O+O+O+O+ ++O++O++ O++OO++O++ O+O+O O++OO O+O++O+O+O +O++O O+*O+O+O++ +O+OO+O ++O+O+O+ O*O+O O+O++O* O+O+OO +O++O+O+O+ O+O++O+O+O O+O+O +O++O+O+O+ +O+O+O+O+O ++O++O++ *O+N+O*O+O *O+N++O O++O+ O++O+O++O+ +O+O+O+O++ O+O++O ++O+O++ O+O++O +O+O+O+O+ +O+O+OO+ O+O+OO+O+O O+O+O+O++ O+O*++O+O+ O+O+O+O++O P++O+O O+N+O O*++O*+O+O O++O+O+O+N ++O++OO O*+O+O++O+ O*O++O+O+O +O++O+O++O +O+O+O +O++O+O+O O+O++O+O ++O++O+O O++O++N++* ++O*O+O+O+ O+O++O+O++ O+O+O+N+O+ O+O++*O+O+ *+O++O O+O++O+O O++O+O++*O ++O+O O++O++O O+O+O+O+OO O+O++O+O+ O++O+ N+O+O N++*O+O+*O ++O++O +O+O+O++O +OO++N+O+O O+O++O +O+O+O++O+ ++O+O +O+O+O+O +O++O O+O+O+O++O O+O++O++O+ +O+O+O+O+O +O+O+O+O +O++O++O+O +O+O++O++O ++O+O+O+OO +O+O+ O+O+O+ O+O++O +O++N++O +O++O++O++ O+O+O+O++O ++O+O+O +O++O+O O+O+O+O+O+ O++O++O+O+ +O+O+O +O+O++O++* +O++N+O+O+ O+*++O++O+ O+O+O++O++ O++OO O++O+O+O +O++O+O+ O++O++O+O+ O++O+O O++O+O+O O*O+O*O+O+ O+O++O O++*+O+O O+N++O O++O++O OO+O+O+O+O +O+O+O+O +O++O++O++ O+O+O+O+ O+O+O+O+O+ O+O++O O++O++O O*++O+O++O O++O++O++ O++O++N+O+ O+O+O O++O++O ++O+O+O ++O++O++O+ OO+O+O+O O+OO+O O++O++O+O+ +O+O+O+O++ O++O+O+O+O +O+O++O+O+ +O++O++O+O +O+O+O++O+ O+O+O +O++O++O+O ++O++OO+O+ +O++O +O++O++O+O O+O+O++O++ O++O++O ++O++O+ +O++O O++O+O+O+O +O+O++O O++O++O+O O++O++O+O p142-1 ftsTitleOverride Monotremes and Marsupials (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The duck-billed platypus and the two species of echidna are the only mammals to lay eggs. The young are no more than about 1.5 cm (3/5 in) long at the time of hatching, and - because female platypuses lack teats - are nourished by lapping milk from the fur on their mother's abdomen. Monotremes and Marsupials (1 of 5) The monotremes and marsupials are the most primitive living mammals, and are distinguished from all other mammals by their methods of reproduction. Whereas the majority of mammals - the placental mammals - typically retain their young within the uterus (womb) until fairly well developed, this is not the case with either monotremes or marsupials. Monotremes are unique among mammals in that they lay eggs, and - although females have mammary glands - they do not have nipples. Marsupials, on the other hand, give birth to minute, near-embryonic young. These then clamber up the mother's hair to her nipples, which are usually situated within a pouch (the marsupium) on the abdomen, where the young complete their development. Two families make up the order of monotremes (Monotremata), with a total of just three living species, all confined to Australasia: the single species of the platypus family, and the two species of echidna, or spiny anteater. There are some 250 species of marsupial mammal (order Marsupialia), divided into 15 families, the majority of which are found only in Australasia. Monotremes Despite laying eggs and sharing certain anatomical similarities with reptiles, the monotremes exhibit two essential mammalian features - body hair and mammary glands. Male monotremes have a spur on each ankle, which - in the platypus - is connected to a poison gland. The duck-billed platypus of eastern Australia and Tasmania is of such extraordinary appearance that when the first specimen was brought to Europe in 1798, it was thought to be a fake. The platypus's distinctive characteristics - leathery duck-like bill, flattened tail and webbed feet - are admirably suited to its semi-aquatic life style. It is a strong swimmer and eats freshwater shrimps and insect larvae. The feet are clawed and used for burrowing in riverbanks, where the platypus makes its home. The echidnas, or spiny anteaters, of Australia and New Guinea are burrowers. They are superficially like hedgehogs in appearance, and - like hedgehogs - may roll into a ball when threatened. They have powerful claws for digging, and long snouts and sticky tongues with which to trap their insect prey. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1U019T1 0U1y81y01U1101T1T ]19U, ]Y1]U]19P 19]9] 1Y9]U] ]]19U19]1] UU1]]- 1yY1Y]] ]Y9Y9 9T1]110101U0U ]1-0U0U- ]9U]] UT]UU9 9]0]]9 9]]9y]1T1U9 U1]19y0]199U9y0U18U1 T1U1\1]9 ]1y9]U91U111y1T11T0 -1y1, ]U9]1]1 9]99Y9y91 1U10U09]] 91]1x9 U9U]]01UU]1U1-01T19 1T]9U 0]U]0 UU1U9 ]U19U1 y9y1T1T99U8191 9U9U1 11U01U 9]Y1U1 0U19]] y5]]] 9y1811T 9y1]]]10 U1TUU11U9- x9U01 11U0U0U1 1]1]] U0-18-0] 1]]^] ]91U] 0]18U0 ]1910 1-1]1 1Y9]9 ]U]1190U0U0 111UT \110U1]1U U0UT1U09 U]]]1 9y9y9U\ ]]U09T Y0U0U 1\y9T9 U1]U1U90U 1T10U0T1 511]11- U]U9] 8U911]9y9y9 9]]19U91U1U91 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1]0U1T1 U1T]11 ]]9y9 9y]1]1-U UUT11\9 ]]]]] 9y]0y]U]U]UT ]UT]9 ]19U9T1 ]]]]1 ]]]U]]y9y1]] ]Y9T1] ]1U81 9]1U1 U]\]] y\]y1 ]9]fy1] 9U9U]Z 91]1] 9U91\99y9y 0U]^]] ]U]U]19 $]9y9 ,L9U0U1 91$P] 1U9U9]9 ]U11]] ]U0U9 9]y99y119U11T1 ]]1]\ ]]]]0 ]U919 ]90]1T9U11]] T1\]] ]Y99y :Y1]U 109-0] ]]]Y9 U]y]]]U] ]U99]b U9Y9]U0 U01\U]] U\1U\U]T ]]1]9 9U9U0-9 ]11U9y U9]19 ]]1T] T]]U9 U1\1P 9]U]]] 1y8]]]U] ]]011 11T1T9\ ]9y9U9\U]1 9U]]U]1 0y9]19 ]xU0P 1T]y8 T]U]]U] 9]T]] x1\18 ]UT]1T10 9]1U\ ]]]]] ]]]]9 1]]U] 9U0]] TU]T9y] 1U0]U 9y]U9UUU0-1 U0U]]] p142-2 ftsTitleOverride Monotremes and Marsupials (page 2) ftsTitle Tree kangaroos are remarkably agile, despite showing few adaptations to their specialized habitat. The hind feet are notably unsuited to tree climbing, and the tail - while offering considerable stability - is not prehensile. Monotremes and Marsupials (2 of 5) Marsupials Australia separated from other land masses before placental mammals were able to establish themselves, so it is chiefly in Australia that marsupials have been able to realize their full potential. In the absence of competition from other mammals, marsupials have filled most of the ecological niches occupied by 'true' mammals elsewhere, and range from tiny shrew-like insectivorous species to wolf-like carnivores. Thus, for instance, there is a marsupial mole, remarkably similar in appearance and life style to placental moles - although it has rodent-like grinding teeth. Another marsupial - the wombat - shares the burrowing life of the badger, and resembles the badger in shape and size. Marsupials are found in other parts of Australasia, particularly in New Guinea, and are represented in the Americas by the opossums. They do not occur in such great diversity outside Australia, however, perhaps because these other areas were colonized early on by placental mammals. Kangaroos The members of the kangaroo family (Macropodidae) include the largest living marsupials. There are over 50 species of kangaroo, the biggest of them - the red kangaroo of the arid plains of central Australia - growing to a height of 1.5 m (5 ft) or more. They are mainly grazers, filling the niche occupied by sheep or antelope in other parts of the world. The smaller kangaroos known as wallabies fill some of the niches occupied elsewhere by rabbits and hares. A few, such as the tiny musk rat-kangaroos, are largely insectivorous. Kangaroos are the only mammals - with the exception of man - to move mainly or solely on two legs. The forelimbs are small and generally held clear of the ground, while the enlarged, well-muscled hind limbs provide the propulsive force for their bounding movement. The larger kangaroos attain considerable speeds as they move forward in huge leaps of 6 m (20 ft) or more. The kangaroo's long powerful tail acts as a counterweight, providing stability on landing. The tail also serves as a balance for the handful of species - the tree kangaroos - that live in the tropical forests of New Guinea and Queensland. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture $,P,t8 0T8xaT p142-3 ftsTitleOverride Monotremes and Marsupials (page 3) ftsTitle The Tasmanian devil (left), despite its fearsome name and its reputation as a sheep-killer, is chiefly a scavenger. Although capable of bringing down prey larger than itself, it formerly relied mainly on carcasses discarded by the now extinct thylacine. Monotremes and Marsupials (3 of 5) Dasyurid marsupials The main group of carnivorous and insectivorous marsupials, the dasyurids (family Dasyuridae), contains nearly 50 species, most of which are nocturnal. They range in size from tiny marsupial 'mice' (dunnarts) around 9.5 cm (3 3/4 in) long to native 'cats' (in fact more similar to genets), such as the quoll, nearly 1 m (39 in) long. The smaller species, such as the shrew-like planigale and the antechinus, are voracious predators, often killing prey - insects, reptiles and small mammals - almost as big as themselves. Some species of dunnart, especially those living in arid habitats where food supplies can be erratic, are capable of accumulating fat reserves in the tail. They can also become torpid, sleeping with their energy consumption very much reduced. The powerful and heavily built Tasmanian devil was formerly found over much of Australia, but is now confined to Tasmania. 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Until recently koalas were threatened with extinction through a combination of hunting for the fur trade, loss of habitat and epidemic disease. Now under strict protection, the few thousand that survived have rebuilt, and the koala is now once again fairly abundant. Monotremes and Marsupials (4 of 5) The koala The koala of eastern Australia superficially resembles a small thick-set bear. It is a highly specialized tree-climbing species, lacks a tail, and feeds almost exclusively on eucalyptus trees, eating as much as 1.5 kg (3 1/4 lb) of leaves a day. The koala's single offspring remains in the mother's pouch for as long as six months, and then rides around on her back until it is about a year old. New World marsupials Three families of marsupial, containing around 83 species, are found in the Americas - the only marsupials found outside Australasia. About 70 of these species belong to the opossum family (Didelphidae), and most of the others resemble opossums. The majority of opossums are rat-like in appearance, even having similar scaly hairless tails, but some are more reminiscent of shrews. Most are forest-dwellers, but one - the water opossum, or yapok - has adapted to an aquatic life. The Virginia opossum - the largest species of opossum, and the only one found north of Mexico - has adapted well to life with man, following the spread of agriculture and often scavenging in urban refuse. It is a prodigious breeder, with up to three litters a year. The young are smaller than honeybees at birth, and litters of 18 have been recorded, but since there are only 13 teats in the mother's pouch, fewer survive. 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Monotremes and Marsupials (5 of 5) THE THYLACINE Until its extinction, the largest carnivorous marsupial was the thylacine, or Tasmanian wolf. It often grew to a length of over 1.5 m (5 ft) from nose to tail, and was the only native carnivore capable of bringing down the larger kangaroos. It once occurred on the Australian mainland as well as Tasmania, but was probably exterminated by competition with dingoes, brought to Australia by the Aboriginal settlers. By the time of the arrival of European colonists in 1788, thylacines were already confined to Tasmania. Here they were persecuted and exterminated by sheep farmers, the last probably dying in the 1930s. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread ..5.R5 .X..XX 4/./4 X.5R5 ./X.4 4XX/44. ./.^Y.5 X.XX. 4.X.X /5.4|.X5 4/X/. X/5X./ /4|X/ 4/._. 4;./. 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X5_.; ;5X.;^ __^^;4 ;55;_ _X_5;_X_ X_;__ ;Y5;_ /;_55 ;X5;. ;55_5 55;_X4 ;X;55 {^W|4 55_;5; _;_5_ Y;55^_X ^W,{-W4 _;5_5;; ;5;_5^. X^^WX 55__5454 _55;_ X{WWX X;;Y;^ ;_Y:_^_ 5__54 ;5;5_4 5WW3XWWX 5^_54_4 _4;_Y__ 455_Y_ 5_5_^5^_ X_X5;5. 5;5;5_^X WVQ|5 554^X X54435 ;455_ 445_X 454-- X_|^5 ;;5Y^ |4-X{ 5;_^4 ;55;;_5;5 P-X,,% 5;;^_ X;55;^ ^^_^_5_^_ 4.3.45 ,,+,,P, p144-1 ftsTitleOverride Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The giant anteater is ground-dwelling, and walks on its knuckles to keep its claws sharp. It can eat around 30 000 ants or termites in a single day, gathering them in with its extraordinarily long tongue, which can be extended over 60 cm (24in). Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (1 of 4) Although not closely related, pangolins, the aardvark and the group of animals known as edentates - armadillos, anteaters and sloths - have a superficial similarity in that they lack some or all of their teeth. This reduction or loss of teeth is associated with the specialized diet of these animals: with the exception of sloths, which depend on plant matter, all of them feed mainly or solely on insects, especially ants and termites. Three families of edentates with a total of just 30 species make up the order Edentata (which literally means 'toothless'): the armadillo family (Dasypodidae) with 21 species; the anteater family (Myrmecophagidae) with 4 species; and the sloth family (Bradypodidae) with 5 species. The 7 species of pangolin form a single family (Manidae) in a single order (Pholidota). The aardvark was once classified as an edentate, but the similarities are due to convergent evolution rather than close relationship. It is now considered the sole species of a family (Orycteropidae) that is the single family in its order (Tubulidentata). Armadillos The 21 species of armadillo are found in Central and South America, with one species - the nine-banded armadillo - also occurring in the southern USA. They range in size from the endangered giant armadillo at around 1.5 m (5 ft) long to the tiny pichiciegos, or fairy armadillos, some 15 cm (6 in) long. The Spanish name 'armadillo' refers to the animal's armor-like plates, which are made of bone and covered in horny scales. They are set in bands and cover most or all of the exposed upper part of the body, including the head and tail. The plates are interspersed with flexible skin, and most armadillos can roll up into a ball for protection. Armadillos have powerful claws and are efficient burrowers, loosening the soil with their forefeet and kicking it clear with the hind feet. The tiny pichiciegos brace themselves against their stiff tails when digging. Armadillos feed mostly on insects, worms and other invertebrates. Some species also eat plant matter, and can cause significant damage to sprouting maize and other crops. The nine-banded armadillo is an adaptable animal, readily colonizing arable land. It has spread steadily over the southern parts of the USA, where it is a frequent casualty on the roads. Its normal litter consists of four young, which all come from a single fertilized egg - and hence are genetically identical quadruplets. As a consequence, these animals have become important in laboratory re search, especially into multiple births. Anteaters The four species of anteater occur in tropical forests and savannah from southern Mexico as far south as northern Argentina. All species are toothless, and have long tapering snouts and sticky tongues to trap ants or termites. The forelimbs are armed with powerful claws for ripping open insect nests, the claw on the middle digit being especially long and sharp. The largest species is the giant anteater, which is ground-dwelling and grows to over 2 m (7 ft) long. The two species of lesser anteater, or tamandua, and the silky (or pygmy) ant eater are tree-dwelling, and have prehensile tails. The latter, growing to a body length of just 15 cm (6 in), has hind feet with jointed soles, allowing it to grasp branches both with its tail and with its claws. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread 4 4 3 4 54454 4; 3; 44;5: 4455; 5:;5: 4 4 4 :.:4 4;454 445;45:4 54;;5 ; 4;4;; 43 4 45; ;4 4 4 4;;44 3;44;44 ;55A5 ;;5;5;; ;445: 5;4:4 3 3 : ;-:4 : ;4 4-;4 ; 4;4;- : 3 44;454 4;4;4 53;;4:;4 :5;_5;4;; ;;5;;4;5; ;5;45;4;4 ;4;54 3 4 : 4 4;4;4; 4 4 44 4 ; ;;5;4;4: ;:4;34:4 ;4;5: 5;44; ;44: 45;4_45;5_ 5;_;5 5;454;4;;4 ;5;:4; 34:4;- 45; A ;; 3_;;4:5; 4;5:545 :;;44 5;5;;4A4;5 4;_;4:4 5;4;5 55;54 ;55:5 3 ;53_ ;445 ;34;454 445;4 4:5:;4;;_4 ;4:;_5 ;45;: 45:4;4 4_;;3 4;;X;;5 _5;;4;;5;; _54:; 4 ; 34;:4; ;454; :44;:5: 45:;35 ;;44: ;4 :4:44 ;44;;: 44;4;4;; 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Sloths spend most of their lives hanging upside down. As an adaptation to this unusual life style, their hair grows from belly to back - unlike all other mammals - so that it hangs downwards in their normal inverted posture. Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (2 of 4) Sloths There are two groups of living sloths: three species of three-toed sloth and two species of two-toed sloth (the distinction is based on the forelimbs - all sloths have three toes on each hind limb). All five species are found in the tropical forests of Central and South America. They are slow-moving, tree-dwelling vegetarians that spend almost their entire life upside-down. Their hands and feet have hook-like claws with which they hang from branches: they eat, sleep, mate and give birth upside down. Because sloths are so slow-moving, their fur often has a growth of algae, which gives a greenish tinge and acts as camouflage. Although almost all other mammals - even giraffes - have seven neck vertebrae, the three-toed sloths have eight or nine. The extra length allows great flexibility - an advantage in an animal otherwise so restricted in movement. When man first colonized the Americas, there were several species of ground-dwelling sloth in the Caribbean, as well as a spectacular giant ground sloth, growing to some 6 m (20 ft), in southern South America. Since their remains have been found with pottery and other human relics, it is highly probable that they were exterminated by man. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture P1PM,-P ]t(P1P PUxUTP 1U1lP1 Uy0UPP1y tM,11U0 1,UT1( x--QU t]U,] T,x]LU x1xUT Uxy1P P1UP- 1tUHy] u]px, x-10, yt1U, $]-Ty ]tYUP yPyYTyxu0 ,)x-x UyUy0y Ly:1y UTUUT -L]]Uy0- ,1x10P Q9tLUU Q(yx1xUQ( U,1]y TQ(-T y\yTP UPQ0PU U-yUx-U,P1 PT-y,U t(0U,-P UU0,1, yyt1yy PyTyP 1P1T1Ut1 ]y]yT -LTyT yTy1x yUx-xU U,y01y -TyUyY U],Q(t 0y,1tU] 9yUyU PUyt1 1QTQ]L 1x0t)x U]UT--TT Uy1x,? ,$HLHH 1,PUt5 Pxu(1x xQxyT -P]T]Qp ,PUTy] yQTx1x xxPx1x, TUT-TU 0,-1$]U ,L,t1H] ,yT0TT UPTUxx -yx-x ]yt1P TTtUT ,L,P] UytTyH tyLP1P0y yx1y0 tUxU\ y-TUP yQLTt(P 0yTxU tUtT1 yTxUy ]t),UTP TyU]y,yUT yx1t1 1,x0$P yTyTU yUyyP-x $U-P0 t,MT$y P-pTU TyxU- UT1Ux 1PUTU 9P,(U Py0y\ 01P1T-y )x1t(P 9t1yU t]TPU $9$u0 0U,T,y U1,P1UUx U0UTU1 x]xTQ y,y0P ]U01y0x ,UPxUP1Q Py-U0yQy1 yy\y] U0,t1x, Ty0y]t ]P)UQU0 TxUxy] $,U1tU ,-0x, 1UyUUTy}U T1Q01y1 x,y0y1U 0y0y,y] 1-TQ\ Ty,y1PU 1,P\y]y (Q0QTT1x )0U,y 1PTUTt UPTPa \,QTb yx]u] 1x]y] 1U\t]x1 t-MTQ yTUTt 9\18T T9T1T\ 0U0\0 T1P9U 10UPy ]\0T0 ]QM0, 9889P 189T9 9]81\ 11y,L p144-3 ftsTitleOverride Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (page 3) ftsTitle $ l o An arboreal pangolin. These pangolins live in hollow trees, have prehensile tails and make very good climbers. Like land-based pangolins they do not have teeth but use their extremely long tongues to sweep up their insect prey. Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (3 of 4) Pangolins Like the aardvark, the pangolins, or scaly anteaters, were once classified as edentates. They do indeed bear a striking superficial resemblance to armadillos, except that their armor is in the form of scales rather than bands of bony plates. Four species of pangolin are found in Africa and three in Asia, and all are active at night, when they go in search of their insect prey - chiefly ants and termites. On finding a nest, they tear it open with their five strong claws on each front foot. Pangolins typically have a tapering body, a small pointed head, and a broad tail, sometimes nearly as long as the rest of the animal's body. All species are covered with large overlapping horny scales, and can roll into a ball if alarmed and squirt a foul-smelling liquid from glands in the anus. The largest, the giant pangolin of western Africa, grows to a total length of over 1.5 m (5 ft). Pangolins do not have any teeth at all, but their stomachs have muscular walls with a horny lining embedded with tiny stones, enabling them to crush and grind ants and other insects. Perhaps the pangolin's most remarkable feature is its tongue. The roots of the tongue muscles are anchored to the pelvis, and the tongue itself can be extended for nearly half the length of the animal's body, in order to extract termites and other insects from their nests. When attacked by ants, pangolins can close the openings to their ears and nostrils, and their eyes are protected by thick eyelids. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 18]99]9 9aaae]a= 9]99]90] 989]9]9]1\1 1]918]1 19181 019199]89U9]1 ]1]19]9]999]999]999U8U1U19U81]9]199 \9999]999]89]899]9]91U U0U01]09U9U 9]9]8 =9a99a99]9901 T10U01 ]U1U10-1] 011T1 U19U98]9 ]a\aa]e]ae =]=9]9 18]9]99\9999 ]19U9]9]9U9 8]T99]991 \11]1181111]10 19]91]9]9]9]9]9]9]1 8U99]1]98 1]9T9\9]9]9]99]9]18U9 9999]= 9]919U 01-01T 111U1U 1U19U1U 9\99]9 aaa]=]a9a]a9]99]9]19 ]191\9T1U U109U919\9U99]09U999]98]9U U9U8]1]81 ]999]999]1110 8U899U 0]9]998]9899]0]0 U010U 0]1\19U8]9]]a9 9999]99]9]1811 U91]199]a]a aa]a9=]98]9]99]9]99]9 U0U1\ 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Pangolins and the Aardvark (page 4) ftsTitle The aardvark has huge ears that are folded back to exclude dirt when burrowing, and its muzzle is protected by thick bristles. It uses its powerful claws to rip open ant or termite nests. Edentates, Pangolins and the Aardvark (4 of 4) The Aardvark The aardvark (meaning 'earth-pig' in Afrikaans) grows to a length of 1.4 m (4 1/2 ft), and is found throughout Africa south of the Sahara. It spends the day sheltered in excavated burrows, coming out at night in search of its insect prey - ants and termites. Once it has sniffed out an ant or termite nest, the aardvark rips open the nest with its large powerful claws and extracts the insects with its long sticky tongue - up to 30 cm (12 in) long. * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture yyPp,x H1$u, $tp,TP,y LUltL LH,lP Tx,pPtHPL$ PtPlt$ t(t$,pPp P(tLt1 P(HH$ tLHtLPP $P$tH $HP,, PptPPH LPtlP tTl,pt $l,pP MPUtHP ,ltp, $PP(tP LtPLP ,H$,xP lH0HPx $,P($P ,$,L, P($$x P$,L$ LPtPx PxPtL $,L$P$PL $Pt,$ Lt,pP,p p,PLHt pPt(x xltTt( l$$,L PLlPLH t$,0xt P,pP(P$,p, tpPpPtpH$ l,l,l$ ,l$,$$ Pt(tPpPl,L $,L$$ L,P(t,L P$$P(t$ (t$H,pPt$ p$t(t(P$H, $,L$PP L,lt( $$,L$HPHPH LttLt PPp,pPtL H,pPLPP(t ,p$T,L, $$(tlPt( (tP,tPpPH pPtpP PtLxPtp$ PxPLPH$,pT HPtLPLtPp t,L,pH PtLHtLt ttLtPpt l,tp,t(P $,lPH H,P$Ppt, LttTtH,p LtPtpP H,Ht,pPt Lt(t$$,$ ,LPLPp PLPH,p,( ptPttHtp,P pPtpPt $,(tL ttLt(tH$l ,L$,$,$, PLtp,x ,pl$xP LtPx,t($ ,L$,pt pPtLPt$ LPPLH (H,pP tLtH, pPpPtlP ,$,tLtPt LtLttL tPL,$P$ P$,pt$ H,$$,,L ,LPtP L$P(t P(tLtL PtLttpPt $$P(P$P tLPpt,H ,$,LPp $t,(tH p,tPpPt t0tPp,$ L$,($ ,$,H$ Ll$PLP$ p,H(t ,H,p,pPtp (t,H, ,p,(PHPP $,H$,L$ (tLP$ HP,pPp xtp,LP $tLPPp$ $,,(,$ LP,Ppt,LPp P(PH,PLP P$,L,p ,,L,P $P,LPPpx H,t(Pt xtLt,L, $,($t PPp,tptL Ppt,(P,L, P(l,tt ,$,LPt PH,p, p,tpPtLt ,tPtP $,tLtpP$,$ P(tLl,( ,pPt( ,L,PLx PPH,p,P$ t$t(tHtLP LtPpTt $t(,P($ HPLtT $$PHPl PLlH$ lPlHH$t P$P$P $,$,P, HtH$,pPP t$PH,(P tltLtt (P,p0t,pP P,(l,lP,p PtH,pt tt0P,LP H,(,H,L PptTP t(t,x,p (tPp,L $,pPptP $$,($$ tPt$,p PLTTt tpPPLt ,t$P$,pt p,,ptP ,pPL, ttLt(l$ L,PPtPptP ,tHPpP tt(tLt ,p,Lt ptPtp $,PLt HtLPP LttLt $,L,$ lt(P,P PLPLtp, ,HP(PptLt, ,tLtLtP HPLP(Pl $$P$$ tLtP,P(t,P (tPLP H,H,H $,t$P,( LP,HPtp, t,l,p, ,P($$ ,$PPl ,P$$, ,ptPt (t,Lt PH,H, pP(H$, ,P(P,L, t,p$PP pPP($ pPtp,HP(l, pt$,,($ tH$$P P(P,pt PLPPLP(,p, p,pPpP PLPt(t,P$$ H,pt,p,H t(H,p,t($ ,LtPL,t,p, tPLPt$ H,ptPL,t pPp$, $,L,p LPH,L tp,PLtLt,p ,p,t(PPL,P PP$,ptPptL tPt$, tPpPP( $,LPP LtLtPt,LP tPpt,t Ht(tHPL ltp,H,pHlt L,t(Ht lP$t$ $$,L$ $(t$,$ $,H,tLt ,t(PLTPLPt (tTt(HPH $tHPH pt,P$, HtHPH ,tP$, p$PLt(t( (l,PLH$ $,L,PLPt t0tpHP P,H,H $t$$P H,pl$ tpt,p, p,P(lP,,LP $$HH$H,HtH tHHtH tPLPp PLTP$ P(H,H$, $$,pPtpP PPL$l, H,L$P ,tpPt($ $$,H,p ,H,$P ($,tpP H$,l, PPpPx PpPP$ PH$,P$x] H,,$$ $,$,l l,H,$PH $,$HP $,H$$, ,HtH$P $$P,$ P,L,t HPPpH $lt(P pt,p,L, PPH,L$,$ t(tPpT tLtLt$$ H,LP, ,pP$(P,LPP ,$,,$ L,t(t Ltt($ ,($Pl,H HHlHPp $PH(P$ ,(P,tL $,$P($$ ,$,LH$,t$, H,$PL$PH,$ ttPp,ttL ,(PPU H,$,l ,t,L, (t,t(tt ,$Ht($U,$P ,H$$PH xPLtLttT PH,$,( L,pPt( tH,(t(tPpP L$PLl$ p$l,(, ,pPtP Ptp,t ,$,$,p $,HH, ,pH$P$HH $t,pH ,,L,t(tPp, P(t,t ,tH,p $,$PH $$,$,uH H$PH$$, (t,t(t,L,( PPLP)t L,Ht,L$H,l tp,L, $t$t$ t($P( P(Pll$ $,$$, tLP(T1PU ,(,t(tLP (P$t$ $,$t( PLltPH$, P(,P, p,P$,P$P, Pl$,H,PH, tp$,Ht ,,(P$ -x$$H- P(tPt, ptPL,xP $H,lP ,lPlPlP l,H,H $$,$H $HP(tP LPPH, $,(t,t( t(P,$ tPpttL tLtl, tltPpl Hltlt pllt( PH,H,p$H,H t(lPHH,$t L,t(t (tPL,$ tpPltl $,tLl$ lPPLt p,(t$ ,L,t(t, t(t,p,P ,$$,$ tltlPl (PlPPL p,tLt(t, PptPpP ,l,lt( LtlPlPllPl pPP(P(P LtLH$, xPPp,t(t, \Qp,tx tpPlPp ,pl,lP( t(ttp (tPp,t,p,P P$,$, HP(lP ltltlttlpP ltltlPt l$,0TPx tpP$P ,(P,H, llPll l,pH,( pltLt tPLHPP PltLl PlttpPtLt ltltLtH,lP ,tLtL ($,$P tplPtl l$H,H, H,p$, P(xt, PLPtxP H,H,lPl ltLlt PlPLHLHt ,pPtLltLtt P(H0t plPltL ltllPlltl, PLtl,p$,P Lll,l t(ttl P$$HP$,LHP PpltHP plt(ltt (HHP$Pp (lHtPpltH HPplH HH,HH H,$H, ,$,LPHt Ltlt(tltL (lPpPL H,H,l l,$HP ,tH,l tLtl, $,pPHPL tl$PL PLltHt ,PLP0 PTtPl0 LtTH,lH,tL lHt$t tLHtl,l,H, P$t$,H t(PHt HPP$tl$ ($$P$, $,pPp t(tPtt ,LH,lP ltl,H H$,$HPl,P$ (l$P$$H $$,$, $,PH$P, $P,(H$,pP UtUx$1 uLx$P tTPlPt $P($,H, ,Ht$$ Ht,$$P$t( lH$$l LH,$$ P$,(H ,H,pH ,$,HH, P$PHP$ p,p,H Plt-, PH$$HH$ LP$H,lPH $,PT, x,$0QU ,L,H, tlttL P(H,L$H $$H$$ ]lPPL $$H,p H,(P, UP1HP( Pt,ptL (Ht(H $,H$l$ pP0T,TP P(,HP P(TPtH P$H,p$,L$ ,PH$, p,L$H,HP $,$,$P ,LHP(HP$,H t$PLPP upl$u $$,$, t$HlH l$$,lP ,($PH TQxly P$P$, ,$t$P,L$P$ PH$$P $,LH$PLP 0PTlP ,x0Pt PpPH1$y l,L,p HH,LH,($,( U,t(H H$,(,H,L $PLHt$H$PL 9,\,p\t $,H,HH,H ,p$t$t,L, P($P, H,$P,LHH H$H,$ ,(P,$P (l$H,H$,L$ H,H$$,$,P lTTyPp, (HtHH ,p,lt$,L$ (t(tP PH,HH$,$$ P0T9\ Pl(,9 ]T]T0 t$PL,Ht(H, H,$,p$ H,$,P ,tPHP PH,LH,$, $PxuPTH $tp,y $$,L$H,L,t 0PPp0PP xPL,, H$H$$ $tHH,lH ,,lP(P ,L,t0t t$P,p$PH, tL$t$H ,l,l,p$lt QxTlx p$t$t plPP] PHPl,l$ H,$P( $,$tx HH,H,(H,pH ,HttL $PHtTy H,$PtL TxTtP t,lTt Ppl,,lP LPLtl TP]PxT Pll,pltL $,plP TxxPy tltH, tLlt$ Lltltl pltltl tltll plPlt PPpltp $$,$t$ HHPltll l,$,$$ H$$,H$ l$,l$ PPlHH ,l,lP ll$lHl HlPlt tHPtLt tPH$$ lPH,$TP,Q H,py] PPUx] $PLPP p146-1 ftsTitleOverride Bats (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Mouse-eared bat in flight. Like most bats from the family Vespertilionidae, the mouse-eared bat feeds on insects, generally caught on the wing. Their prey is often captured with the aid of the well-developed membrane of skin stretched between their legs. Bats (1 of 4) Although certain other mammals are capable of gliding - sometimes for considerable distances - bats are the only mammals capable of true flight. The flying membrane of bats consists of skin stretched between the four extremely elongated fingers of each hand; only the thumb remains free, and is used for grooming. The elastic membrane is attached to the bat's ankles, and in many species it is also connected to the tail. While many species of bat have light fluttery flight, others are powerful fliers capable of covering great distances. Migratory species, such as the European mouse-reared bat, regularly fly 400 km (250 mi) or more. Bats occur all over the world except the colder regions, above the tree line, and on some remote oceanic islands. They are extremely numerous and diverse, second only to rodents in number of species: well over 900 species have been described, and new ones are regularly discovered, particularly in the tropical forests. The order Chiroptera, to which all bats belong, is divided into two unequal groups: the Megachiroptera consists of a single family (Pteropodidae) of about 170 species of fruit bat, or flying fox; the Microchiroptera includes all other species of bat - around 800 species in 18 distinct families. Because all bats fly at night, they are mostly rather drab-colored - usually various shades of brown. A few are more striking, however, such as the white bat of Central America and the Rodriguez fruit bat of Rodriguez Island (near Mauritius in the Indian Ocean), which has golden fur. Bats vary in size from one of the smallest known mammals, Kitti's hog-nosed bat of Thailand, which is about the size of a bumblebee and weighs around 2 g (1-14 oz), to the fruit bats, which may weigh over 1.5 kg (3 1/3 lb) and have wingspans in excess of 1.5 m (5 ft). Fruit bats The fruit bats, or flying foxes, are found in the tropical and subtropical regions of Australia and the Old World. As their name suggests, fruit bats mostly eat fruit, but some feed on nectar as well. Their alternative name is also apt, as most fruit bats have dog-like faces, and many have the rusty coloration of the red fox. Most fruit bats have large eyes and rely principally on their sight, and are therefore usually active at dusk or dawn, flying up to 70 km (44 mi) in search of fruit. A few are nocturnal, however, using echolocation for navigation. Fruit bats often live in the tops of trees in communal roosts. They frequently occur in huge numbers - a single colony sometimes numbering over a million members. Some of the smaller fruit bats roost in the roofs of caves, in colonies of up to nine million members. They often move in flocks of a thousand or more to suitable feeding sites, as figs or other fruit ripen on a particular tree. These feeding movements play an important part in the dispersal of the seeds of trees in tropical forests. Fruit bats sometimes feed in citrus and other plantations, but since they normally eat fruit that is ripe or over-ripe, and most commercial harvesting is of under-ripe fruit, they actually cause little damage. Despite this, they have been extensively persecuted by fruit farmers. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1-119 011U1T1y] 1U191 ]U1Q10 T11T1 0-0--T11 11911 T11-0- U119] -1T-U1 1-0U11 U1-01 y]U-1T TU1U1 ]U1,U011T1 U1U0-- 1U1y9 1U01U ayUxUx 1T1y9 U01UUx] x1-01 ]11UU U1-01U] 1U1T1U1 U0-U10 911U1 01U1] 9U10U1 1Y11-0U0- 11-01 U11U1 ]U1U9 -0U0-0 1-1U1U19 UY101 0U11U] U10U11Y -01U1U1]1 U1U01U 110-119 U11-911 -0U1-- ]U1U0- --1-- --119 1-11]1 -0-,y -11U1-11- 1-1-1 1-,119 -11-- 0uyUP 10-QyTy-- 11-,1- 1Q0Uyx -1-9- UUyUy 1101Uyy 1U911 U1yyUT -1-11 ]1U19U 11-1- UUy1, -11yUy- 11-11- 11T1y1 --11U1- -11--11 11-11 11-1y]U 1-1-1 1U11y 1U11- 11-11 1]119 1-1-1-- -19U19 -1-1-1 1-11- 11-11 --1-1 1-1-1 U11-1 91U11- 11--1 U11-1 11-11- 11--1 -11-11- 11-1-1 1-1-- 1-1-- 1--11 11]1- -1-1- -1-1Y] -11-11 11-11 1-1-1 1-11-1 1]11- 1-1-1 11-11 ]11-1 11-1-- 11-1- 11-11-11 -11-011 11-11-11 9T11-11]1- 11-11 1-1-- 11T101 U11U1 11-11 1-11- 1U19U1- 11]1] 911-9 1U1-1-1 U11U1U 11-11 --1-1 U1-11 1191U9 1U11- 11-1-1 U1U11 -11U9U9 11-1- 1-11U11 519119~ ]119- 11-11 1191U191 1U191]1 11U11 11]19 919U1 -1-11 11U1- 9-911U1 1-11- U9U11 01-1-1 1191]1 -119- U11-1-11 U11U11U 1-1-1-1- U911U 119-9 U1-1- 1-011- U1U11 11-11-1 511-1 11-1U 1U11- 19191 9U11- 11-1- -11-1 15U9U U19-1U -1]1] 11-11 91U1U -11-1 -91U1 11-11 11-1-1 U1U11U 11-11 1-11- -1]11 11-U1- 9-1U1U 91]11]1911 11-1911 1-11- 9-11U 9-U191U11- -11U119U9 911911- 11-11 9191U1 1-11-1 -19U911 11-11-11 1-11-1 1--1-1 9U911- 1-1-1 1-1-1 ]119-1 1-11U 11-11T1 11-9119 -11U11 1]11U9U 91911 1-11- 1U11U 519U1 1U1U1U91 11U11 -Y1-1 11-11-1 11-11 9U1U1 --1-1- 11-11-1 11-11 1-U11 1U1-1 1-11-1 11-1-1 1-1-11 1-1-1 -U1-1 11-1- 11-11- 1-11- 1-U1- 11-1- 1-1-1 11-1-1 91--11- -1-1- 11-11 11-11 1-1-1 -11-1 191]b1 11U11 -1-9U11b 11-11- 11-1- 1-11- 11-11 1U911 11-11- 1-11- 11-11 11-1-1 -11-1 1-110U 11-11 11-11 11--1 1U11- 11-11- 1-11-1 1-11-1- 11-1-- 1-1-1 11-11-11- 1-1-1- -1-11U 11-11- 11-11 1-11-1 11-11 -101- 9U9Z] 11-11 1-11-11 1-11- U11-1 11--1 U1-1-1 11-01 11-11 11-11 1U1]1 11-11- 1-11U 11-11-1 11-11 11-11 1--11 1-1-1 -11-1 11-11 1-11-11 -1]11 11-11 1-1-1 11-1-11 11-11 -11-0 11-11 11-1- -19U11U1 U1U15 91U1-11 U1U11-1 U1U11 1-11- 119-11] 91911 11-11- U1]191 11-11-1 U11-1-1 U1U11-1 1U119U 11U1-1 -11-1 1-U11 1-11- U1]11 1-1-11 11--11 U1U11- 1U119 U1U1]1 1U19- 1-11U 1-11- 11-11-1 11U19 1-11-9 11U919 119-1U1 11-11 1-1-1 9U11] -1-11 11-11 1-11- 11T11 11U9]U- -011U UU1U0-1- UU0U]TUU0 U1T1- 1-1-1T U1T1U0U1- 1T1]1U0 -1--11U p146-2 ftsTitleOverride Bats (page 2) ftsTitle Hunting on the wing. Most bats rely principally on insects for their food, but some - including this American leaf-nosed bat - feed on larger prey. As well as frogs, carnivorous bats may feed on shrews, small rodents, birds, lizards and even other species of bat. Bats (2 of 4) Echolocation With the exception of most species of fruit bat, the majority of bats are dependent for navigation on echolocation - an extremely sophisticated form of sonar. Echolocation involves emitting high-pitched squeaks (mostly above the range of human hearing) and measuring how long it takes for the noise to bounce back from intervening objects. By this means bats are able to fly in total darkness. Many species, such as the horseshoe and leaf-nosed bats, have elaborate folds of skin on the nose and face that are used in echolocation. Because certain insects, particularly night-flying moths, have learnt to take evasive action when they hear bats approaching, some bats have huge ears and use very low-volume squeaks for navigation. Feeding techniques Bats have evolved a wide variety of feeding techniques. Most are insectivorous, often consuming huge numbers of tiny insects such as midges and mosquitoes in the course of a single night. In the tropics many species feed on nectar and pollen, and are often extremely important pollinators for night-flowering trees, cacti and other plants. Flower-feeding bats tend to have long extensible tongues or pointed snouts in order to reach into flowers. The three species of vampire bat, confined to the New World, are the most specialized of all bats, feeding entirely on the blood of warm-blooded vertebrates. Their front teeth are modified into two triangular razors, which they use to make a small incision, rarely felt by the victim. They then lap up the blood. The bat's saliva contains anticoagulants to prevent the blood from clotting, and the victim may continue to bleed after the bat has finished feeding. Although vampires are a problem in some parts of the New World, particularly in cattle-rearing areas and where rabies is common, the dangers are often greatly exaggerated. A few species of bat are carnivorous, the largest being the Australian giant false vampire, which feeds on mice, small marsupials, birds and even other bats. Other species of false vampire occurring in Central and South America feed on opossums, lizards and other bats. There are also a few species that regularly catch fish. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture $,LPt PL,Ll t(P,t$ H,P$, tPpl$ tTxt\ P,p,$ $t,$t$ $,LPp$ $T\P$ PptLH xPP(t xx,TxTx,P ,(PP$ ,$P,p PL,tL tL,PPt PP($p tTPT$ 0P(lx PL,LxT TP,,$ ,x0PT, TtTPTtTt Tx,Lt, ,pTPLP xxPxP ,xtxPxP ,TPxt pTP(t tPLtPt txPpt PxPtPx x$tLt TxPxT ,tPtPx tTt(tLP ,(0PL, L,P,pPL ,tPxPt TxPtT tLxPT xPx,tL TtPxx ,x,LxPpT TPT0t xPTtLx x1x00T 8yx0]x xU,y0Q T8PTx Ty,xx 1PTT, 1TUUTT 0U,\, 8(U0T01 P0TUx ,P,HT x,PTt\ x9T1] ]\1U\U t9L0P 8]\]xU\ xPU0, `x0$$ \81\T P(0t,p 1\]09T9 0TTU\ 0Q8Tx9 Tx,xU ,Px8U0 0x0yT TU]]P] 4xT\ $,y01 01]TT1p P0x0Q ,(TTl xTtTt p146-3 ftsTitleOverride Bats (page 3) ftsTitle A group of flying fox bats roosting - upside down - in a tree. While sleeping each bat wraps their flying membrane around their body, leaving their ears free. Even when asleep they are on their guard. Their ears continually move as they scan their surroundings. Bats (3 of 4) Bat roosts Many species of bat roost in caves or crevices, and some of the larger roosts are among the biggest known concentrations of any one mammal. A single colony of free-tailed bats in Eagle Creek, Arizona, once contained some 50 million members. This number subsequently fell to about 600 000, probably as a result of the widespread and often indiscriminate use of insecticides in North America in the 1960s. While roosting, most bats hang upside down by their feet, and may even give birth in this posture. The dung, or guano, of cave-dwelling bats has been mined in many parts of the world as a rich source of agricultural fertilizer. In certain tropical caves, such as those in Borneo, several million bats of a number of different species live together. Complete ecosystems have evolved that are dependent on these bats. A wide range of invertebrates feed on the bats' dung and food remains, while snakes, insectivores and other vertebrates prey on the invertebrates and the bats themselves. Hibernation Most species of bat living in temperate regions either migrate in winter to areas where food is available or hibernate. During hibernation bats use about a tenth of the oxygen needed when active, and can rely on energy stored as fat. Most bats allow their body temperature to drop and their metabolism to slow down both when sleeping and when hibernating. Declining populations In parts of the world where there is intensive farming, especially in Europe and North America, bat populations have undergone catastrophic declines in the past few decades. Damage to habitat has been a significant factor, but the widespread use of persistent pesticides in agriculture and of highly toxic insecticides for treating building timbers has also played a major part. Although most bats produce only one offspring a year, this low rate of reproduction is normally balanced by the fact that they are long-lived animals, with even small bats known to live 20 years or more in the wild. As a result, declines in numbers can take a long time to be noticed - and even longer to be reversed. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1U91T1- b b > ]11]- -U1U01]111 c ^ : ^ b --b: : 111Y:- U1U11 f > U: > ;b^b:U ? > ^ :1 T11^Y1 1U11U U1-1] c ? b :: ^ ^ ? 1--011-- 111-- -1U1-1 U11 : c^1- ^^?^ ; ^^11- -0111-1 b :^c : b ^c > ^ : 99U -]111 : ^ ^ ^^: c 1 ^c _ : :19Y1 6^ 1 ^b^ 1U11- 0U9U14-1- b b^1- : b :1^^ : -0-1: c b ^^b _ 1---1 ---1U: 1T1-0 -1U1011 1U1-11 1U111- bc^ : -1:c^ ^ : -10U-111-1 11U1U0] 11011 cf ^ ^ : ^: ^ bcf ^ >_b_b 1,119 11-011 -111- 0111U b bg b : ^ ^_ b 1U-9U1 ^^11U -99U0U11 ^^ ^ -2 b >^ :: -19U9 :1111--1- : cB b ^V^ : ^11 ; : _^11-- 011-9 :U1-1U --1: ^^c 1 b : b ^ 1 b_>_ ^ -1-01 T1111 : > : bU_b -19-1U ---: ^1 1:--1 c: c c:- C^ : : c^? ^ -1--1 : cf 1U1U11 : c U: c 2 > c : :U 010U0 -111- -,11U ^_: : ? ; : b : : U^^2b :: c b c c c^- _ > > ^ > -1UY1--1 -0-1U1 > > ^111U1 : c^^c c c 1- ^ ^ _b 1-1Y9 1-11T1-1 0U1UY 111U1- :^: : : > b f :-:^^ : c cf 2Y b_b ^:-1 0-0-99 1T1U: ^ ::U1 f; ^c : cb : c b 1111^ c c c c c c -k - U11 1 11:^^ T11U11U] ^b_b^b b^ 2^ : b :^ 1 c c c b1- 1 2 1 ^b : ^ b^ 11T11U101-: 11U91 1^:^^; >^^ : > c b > g bV ^: b c cf c c c _ ^ c^^ 1-1T111U1 11U:U -U: ; ^ bc^ : 2 : b bf:^ c c cf b^Yb ^ : >^ ? 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Bats (4 of 4) GLIDING MAMMALS Although bats are the only mammals that have achieved true flight, some others can glide, often for long distances and with a great deal of control. The sifaka, a large lemur from Madagascar, has small membranes between its limbs that probably do little more than assist stability in its enormous leaps of up to 10 m (33 ft). The two species of colugo, or flying lemur, of Southeast Asia - unrelated to the Madagascan lemurs - can easily glide 100 m (330 ft) or more. They have the most extensive membranes of any gliding mammal, the skin-fold (patagium) extending from the neck to the wrists, between the front and back limbs, and back to the tail. Other species of gliding mammal include a marsupial - the tiny pygmy gliding possum of Australia, weighing around 12 g (less than 1/2 oz) - and the similar-sized flying squirrels of North America and Eurasia. A number of species of squirrel and possum have gliding membranes stretching along their sides between their limbs, on which they can glide from tree to tree, and several have cartilaginous rods extending from the wrist or elbow that stiffen the membrane when in flight. * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 99800 ]8U\(0 8U8T,0 9]T0x ]`U0, P00]89 00],T PUT]0 99]91\9 Y98T1 0U8U0 ]T18U 9\1]0T 0]xT* ]x0U\T1 ]yTU0 ,,PTP0T ,]TU] P]\09 TTx,0x TTxTTx P,xxT t0x00t1 UTxxT0PP]x x00P0 x0UTP TT0,xTT00 ,x]T0yT T0x1xx ]x\]0 TT,]0] Txx0y0 \x101 TT,U00x1 1dU0U]] 0T98U1 001\0 1\T0P TTP]8 ]\U]8 0]0090 ,T,x, \]]8U x]x\\ \]8U0 TT9x9 Tx9T9T9 9\9\0 T0y0U ]\x1x 5]]x1 =]aU4]9 \00T1 1T0T,01 T180P( P(T8T 0]9]0T1 ]1\9T 198]]T -\0], 4]0,]9 ax0P,P 88]9T 8$0T10 \00T0 p148-1 ftsTitleOverride Insectivores (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Elephant shrews are named for their elongated, flexible snouts. They are also identified by their long hind legs, large ears and eyes, and long, thin tails. Insectivores (1 of 4) The seven families of insectivores, which include the shrews, the moles and the hedgehogs, contain around 375 species of mammal, together making up the order Insectivora. They are thought to bear a close relationship with the primates, and some of the simpler forms appear to be very similar to primitive, unspecialized ancestral mammals. Insectivores are generally small, have long narrow snouts, and simple peg-like teeth. They have five clawed digits on each limb, and usually have minute eyes and flat feet. Most species live on or under the ground, and generally eat insects, as their name implies, although some are carnivorous. Shrews The most numerous family of insectivores is the shrews (Soricidae), with around 265 species found in all parts of the world except the colder regions, Australia and New Zealand, some islands, and most of South America. They are generally small mouse-like animals, with dense fur and pointed snouts. Although mostly ground-dwelling, a few species have adapted to an aquatic life, and several species of water shrew have fringes of stiff hairs on their feet to aid swimming. The pygmy white-toothed shrew has the distinction of being one of the world's smallest mammals, weighing about 2 g (1/14 oz). The hero (or armored) shrew of central Africa, on the other hand, is one of the most resilient: it has a reinforced vertebral column of such extraordinary strength that it can sustain the weight of an adult human, apparently without suffering damage. A number of shrews (as well as some other insectivores) have poisons in their saliva, which - although only mildly toxic to larger animals - can incapacitate invertebrates such as earthworms. In the case of some shrews, predators are also deterred from attacking by acrid-smelling secretions from glands in the animal's flanks. Shrews are very active, feeding in short bursts, then resting. In order to meet its energy requirements, the common shrew may eat well over its own weight in food in a period of 24 hours. Shrews never hibernate, even those species living in colder regions - it would be impossible for them to build up sufficient reserves of food. When alarmed their heart rate may rise to 1200 beats a minute. The 16 species of tree shrew - despite their name and shrew-like appearance - have certain peculiar features that have led them to be classified separately from the insectivores. They are now usually placed in an order of their own. * EARLY MAMMALS * HIBERNATION Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ]U1111 1U5UU yy111 110-- ]y1U11 ]U1y] yy]1YU10- 1U1Ub 1UU01 11U1U1 ]U1U111 }1y1YU1 U1T-)T y111- U1U11 ]Z1-, 11U11T Y1U11U1 -,-1U] 11-1-1 1U1011 UUUU11U1U 1U11U11T 1]^11 U111U 1y1U1U1- 1--1--1U1- U1-1U 1YyU]U] UUUyy UUY1T1U01 ]y1U1 111U1U 1y1U1- 1-11U1 U0U11111 -1U11 U-1U] }UUUT UUT-1T]y1y1T ]U1y- 1UUU1T- yUyUyy]y0y UyUyUyy U1U11 -0U1U1 1T1U]yy]yU xyTyUyyyUx UYUTUU, y]U]y1U1U 11U1U11- L111U11 11U1] 1U1UUUUy]y0y] y]yy]yyUyU y]yUxUyxUyUyxU y111U1U 1yYUU1U U]y]U]y yU1U] -y11U Q1Y11 1TUUUTUUy Uyy\yy Uxyyy]yy]yUxy]yU ]y]y]y0y1xU1yUTUP-UU 1yU0y1- y]yUU]yU] 1y1y1 1-U0yU]U1U01x1yyU y]y]y Uyy]yU 1Uy1yU y1Q1y]UUy YUy0UUYU11U1UU U01U1U 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European mole, like most moles are mainly borrowers, living in tunnels where they are active throughout the year. The five toes of the forefoot have broad claws that are used like shovels for digging. Insectivores (2 of 4) Moles All of the 27 or so species of mole (family Talpidae) are confined to the northern hemisphere. They are adapted to life underground and to digging, and so are generally restricted to habitats with soft soil. Their shovel-like forepaws are permanently turned outwards, and they have short thick arms with powerful muscles. The fur is short and velvety, and can brush in any direction, thus allowing the mole to move backwards and forwards through its tunnels with equal ease. They have very small eyes and are virtually blind, but have long sensitive snouts. The diet of Old World moles is principally made up of earthworms, which are trapped as they inadvertently fall into the mole's system of burrows. Any surplus worms are stored away, having first been immobilized by having their front segments bitten off. One species, the star-nosed mole of North America, has highly sensitive tentacles on its snout with which it searches for food. Desmans are a type of aquatic mole, and have webbed hind feet to aid swimming. The Russian desman is the largest of the moles, growing to around 40 cm (16 in). It is one of the few insectivores to have been hunted commercially for its fur, although moleskins were traditionally used in Britain for countrymen's waistcoats. The only other species, the Pyrenean desman, is rather smaller. Golden moles The 18 species of golden mole (family Chrysochloridae) are confined to Africa, where they are found from Cameroon and Uganda to the Cape. Although similar in structure to the true moles, they are only distantly related. Their thick woolly fur has a luster often giving them a golden or bronze appearance. Some species - despite being blind - hunt on the surface, but usually only after rain, or at night. Most species feed on invertebrates, but some also eat legless lizards up to 20 cm (8 in) long - over twice their own length. * EARLY MAMMALS * HIBERNATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1P10yUYU0U0y1-L1UTUU0UUUTU1T1xy1yy1TUT-y] 1y]U,Q1Ty1U0yy1y 11-T1y10y1UyUy1yy UyUy1T1T1- Q1yUUUU1P10y11U0-10Q1T1U0yy1 y]yUTUT1TU T1yUy11y Uy1UU ]y]yUUyU yUy1, U0y1y1y-Q]Q Q0QUUy11-0y10U10Q1UUUUU011T-UUUTy]y1y1xU y]yUy1U11,y1UxUyUy] yy0U11y1yU1xyUYy1x yyUyUy}]y 1y1TUU-1T-UU y11U,11U01PUU0y 10y1x y]yU]U, y0U1P-UUUy] UUUy]Uy1U, y0UTyy1y UyU0U1 UT1y1y}UyU,U ,UUU0UUUT 1P1Q10Q1Q10Q1y 111Ty1T-P110U10U1TU1xU 1U,-1TyUy UU0yUUyUx yy1U,-T1UyUyU Uy1x1U0y1Uy1UUyUUy y1y1x1U01y]y1TUU1y1yU1UUy1y1 UUUUUUy1U- ]yyyU 10yUU,UyUyU UUy1x Uy1U] UU,U1 Uy0y1x 1U0U0UU,1U0Q-0U-,1yU1yUU, 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:;^^:; :_^^;: ::^::Z:V:V: :2:2Y^ 2]21:U2Y2 :2^2: :^:::::^^^; :^_^: : _^^_^;b^ _ _ ; ^ _ ; _b_ ; _^c^_ ^_ : ?^ _; ; ; : :;:_:^_:^;:^;^;:_::^; :;^:_ :;:^;^:;^^_^: :^_^:_^^_^:; ;^^^; ;^_^; :_b^_^^_: :^_^; :_^^;: ::^:^::Z^2 2::V:2:2^2:^ :2:Y6: 2Y^Y6 :Y:2^ :^::^:^^_: ;:_^_: ;_^c ?__ _> >_ _b_ ; ; _^ ; _^ b; _c^ >_ : _ _c^c_ ; : _ ; ;:_:; :^;^: ;^:;^: ;:_^^; :^;^: :_^_^^;^^_ :^_^; ;^^_: :^_^^_^_^^_^^^_^: :^_^; ;^^_:^ ^::_:^:V^:^ :2::V: :V::2^:V::2 :V:::^:: :_^^; ^c_^ _b_ : _ ^ ^c^ _ ^_ ; ; ; ^_ _? ^ _ _? :_^^; ;^^_:_^^;:^_^; ;^^_^_ ^_: ; _^__^^[^_^_^_^^ ;^^_: :_::^^^:::::^::^:^:^:^:^::^:^: :^:^:^::2: ^::^::^::^:^:^_^_: ;^_^^_:^_> ^c_ _ ; _ ; ; ^ ; _ ^ ; ?^ _ _ ;b_ _ ; _c ^c^ _c^c^ _ ; _ : ^ _c^ _c^c_ _b :^;^^;^_^:_^_: :^_^_^^^; :^_^^_: ;^^_: :_^^_^ b_^_^^ b__^ : : : _^^_^_ :^;^:;^:; ::^::^:^: ::^:^Z:^:: ^::^::^ :_:_: _c_b _ ; _ _ ; ; ^c_ _ _c^c _c^ _ b_ : _ ; _c^? _^ ^? c_ ; _ _ ; _b :^_^:^;^: ;^_^;^^_: ;^^_: : ^_^_b_^ ; : _ ; ^_^ _ ^_b^c^c_^_^ : :^_^^_: :;^_^:;^;^^_::^:^ :^::^:^:^:^^:: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ : ^? : _ _ ;b_ ^ ; _ _b_ : _ _^_ ^_ _ _^c _ _ _b ; _ : _ :^_^; :_^^_^^_: :^c^_^_ : ^c^_ ^c^ : ^_b_ :_^^; ;^^;^^_: :;^^^:: b^^c^ _ _c_ ; _ _ _ _ ; : ; ; _ _ _? ; _ ^c_ c_ _b_ ^c^ _ _b_ ; _b_^ ; _b_ : :^__ :^_^; ;^^c^_^^_^^_^_^^ : ;^_b_^ : : : : : ^_ _b^ ;^b_ _b_: ^_ _^ ^^ : ^b_ ^_:_: :_^^^_: ;^_:^; :_^_:^_b: _^ ^_ _ _ ^ _ _c^ _ _ _b b_ ^c_ ^ ^ _ ; _ : ; __ _^ _b_ _? ; ; ;^_^^^: :_^^; ^_^_^_^ >_^_^_ ^_^_^__ : ^^_ ; : _b_b_ c : ^ ;_b^_^ _^_^__^_ c_^__^c: :^__b^ ^_^^? : ^c^ _ ; _ _c _ ; ; _ _ ; ^c^ ; ^ ^c_ _ _ _ _ __ _b_ ; _ > ^ : _ _ _ _> __ ; _b_ _b_b_ ^c _b_ ^ ^ ;^__^; ^__^_: :^_^ : ?^: : ^^ : ; ^_b__ : : ^_ ^ ^ ; _b_> _b_ ^ : : : :_^; ;^ :^_b: ;^c^_ _ : _ ; ; _ _ c^ _ : ^ _ c_ ? _ : _ _ ^ _b_ ; ^ ^ ^ _ _ _b_ ^ _c^ _ ;^ ^c^ _b_ _c_ ^c_ ; _ ; >_^ : ;^_ ^^_ _ : ^_ >_: ^ : ^ _ c:^_^_ ; ;^b_ ; _c^; >_^_b^ ^ : : > ^ c^ _c^ _ ; ^c _ _ _ _ ; : _ _b_ _b_ : ? ?_c : _? _ ;b _b_ ^c_?_ ; _ : ^^_^_ :_^__^_^ : :_^c ^_^c ;^ _ _ ; : ^ _ ; ^ c ; ^ _ _^ c_ _ _ ; : _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ; ^ ; : : _ ; _ _c_c_ _> _^^_^^_^_ ^b__b >^_^_^ _b_ _ : : c^ ; _ ^ : ^? _b_ _ _? c^_ ; ^c^ ^ ^c_ ^ _ ; ^ ^ ; ; ^ _ _ cb _ ; _ _bc _b_ _ _ ^ ; _? c ; : : ^ ; ^c^ ^c_ ^_ b _b_ : _b ^ ^ :^_ ^^_^^^_^^_^_^^_ : ;^__^ b^; _b _ :_b^c_ ^^ _ ; c^ ^ _ ^c^ _b ^ ^ _?^c _ _c ^c ^c^c^ _ _ ; c_ _ ^ ; ^ ; c ?_ ^ _ ^ _ ; ; : _ : _ ; ^ __ _ ^ ; _ ^ ; _ ; ^_ ^_^ : __b__ _ ^_ ^; ;b_^ _ ; ^ _^ : ; _c_ ^c^ ^? : _ ^ ; ^ ; _ _ _cb _ _b_ _ ^c^ ^ ^ : ; _ _ _ _ _ _ c_ : ? ; _ ^c^ ^ b _c^ ^ : _ _^ ^ _ _ ^ : _ __ _b_ ^c_ _ : ^^_^^_^^ : __: ^c^_b_^ ^ _ ^ _; : ; ^c ; _ _ : _ ; ; ^ _ ^ _ c^ _ _ ^cc _ ^ ; _ cc ; _ > _ ^ _ ? ^ ^c _ _ _ _ : _b_b _ ; c^_b ; ; _b_ _ _ _^ ^ : ; ^_^ :_^ _b_ : ^ _b_> _b_ : _c^ _ ^c^ _b_ _ _ ; _ >_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _b_ c_ ^ : __c _ _ _bc ^ ; ^ _ ^ _ ? _ ^ ^ : _ _ ^ _ : ; ; _ _b_ _ _ _c ^_b_^ :_ _^__^__^^_^ ^_^c_ ^_ ; ^ ^b_ ; _ ; _ ^ :_b_ ; ^ : ^ ?^ ; : ; _ _c _ > ^c _ c : _> _ _b_ > c _ _ _ ^ ^c_ ^ ; _c^ ^ _? ^ ; ; ^c_ __ c^ _ _ ^ ; _c _ ^ _ _ _ _ :_ ; ^ ^ ; _b_ _ : _ _^c_ ; _ ; _ : _ ^_b_ _ _ _ ? ^c^ ^ >_ ? ^ ^ : _ ^ _ _: ^ _ _ ; ^c ; _ c_ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^cc ^ c^ : ^ ; _ ; ; ^ : _ ^c^ ^ _c^ ^ _^ _ _ ; _c ^_ ^ ; ; ^__ _b_ __ ^ ; ^ _c^ ^ ^ ^_ _ _ _ _ _ ^c : _ _ ; ^? _ _ b_ b_ _b_ ? b _ ^ _ _ _ ^ _ ?_ b_ ; _cb ; _ ^ _cc _ : ?^c_ ^ c_c^ _ : ^ _b_ : b ; ^c^ ; : _ : : b_ _^ ^_^ : ^c^_: ^_b_^ _ ^ _^ ^ ^ ; ^ : ; ; ; ^c^ _ ^ _c ^ ^ ^ _ ^ _c^ ? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _b _ _ _ _ _c^ ^c_ _ ; ; _c^ _c^ ^ _ ;^ _ _ _^ : _ ; _ _c_ ^__b_^ ; ?_: ^_ ^_^^ b_^_c^ ^b_ ; _ ; _ ^c^ : ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ; ; _ _ ^ ^c ^ ^ ; _ _ ^ ^ _ ; _ _b _ ; _ _ b_ _ > ? _ ? ; _ ? _ ^ c^c^ ^ ?_ _ : ^ _ _ ; ? c; _b_ : ^c^c_ ;c c^ _c_ _ :_c^ ^_^_^ ^c^ ^__^ ; ^c^_ :_ ^ _ : _ ; ; : ^c^ _ __ _c^^ _ _b _ ; c : _ _ _ _ _ ^ ? _ _ : _ ^ ^ ; cg bg ; ^ _ _b _ _ c_ _ _ : : ; _c _ ; _ ; _ _ _ ^c_ b_ ^c^ _b_b_ ^c^ ; _ ^^ ^ ^b b_^c^ ; _ ^c^? ^ _ : _ ? _ c_ ^ ^ _ _ c _ ^ ^?_ _ c^ _b _ _ ^ ^ _ ; _ _b b_ ^ _cf _ ^? ^ ^ _ ^c^ _ c^ ^c^c^c^ _b_ _c^ : ; _ _ ^c_ ; _ _b_c_ : _c^ : ^b_ :_b_ ^^ : ^ _; ^c_ _?^ _ _ _^ _ _ _ : ^ ; ^c_ _ _ ? ?_ ^ _ ^ ; _> _ c^ _ _ ; ^c ^ _ _b _b_ _ _c_?^ _ ; _ _ _^c b_ ^c_ _c^c_ _b_ _ _c_? _^ ^; ^ _ _ ; _b_ ^ : _b_ ^ ^ : ^c_ > ; ^ > ^ ^ c_ ^ _ _ c _ _ > _ ^ _ c ? ^ : _ ^ b_ : _ _ _> _ : ^? ^c ^c ; ; ; ? c; ^ _ ^c : _ ; ^ ; ^ ; _c_ ; ; _c^ ; _> _ _c^ ; ; _c^ ; _^_^^ :__ _ ^ ^ ^c^c_ _ _ ^ ^ > ^ ^ c^ ; _cf _ _ ^ ; _c_ _ _ _ ^c ^ _ _ b c ; _ _ _ ^c_ _ _c _ _ ^c _c _?_c ^ ; _ ; : _ _ _>_ ; : _^ _b_ ; ; _ ; _ ; ^ : b_b;_ ^b_ _ _ ^c^ ^ : ^ _ _ ; cc^ ^ _ _ ? ; _> _ ^ ^ b_ ^ ; ; _ _ ^ ^ _ _c c_b _ : _ c_ ; _ ^ ^ > ^ c^ ; _c ^ ; ;b c: _b_ : ^ _b_ ; _b_c_ ^ ^; : ^ ; ^_ : _c_ ^ _ _ ^ _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ _c^ _ _ > _b _ _ ^ : c: : ^c^ ? ^ _ ; ^ ^ > _ _b_ ^ ^ ^ _ ^c_ _b_b_ ?_ ; _b_ ^ _^ : : : _? : : ; _ : _c^c_ _^ :_ _ _^ ^ ^ ^c^ b^_ ; _b^ : ^ _ _b_ _ _ ;^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _b _? ^c _bc _b_ ^ _ ^ _ _ ^ ^ _ _c_ _ ^ _ ^c^ _ ? ^ > c_ ^ >_c_ >_ ^ b ^ ? _ ^c : ; ; : ; ; _ ; _ >_ : ^ : _ ; _b; _c_c_ ? ; : ^c^ ; _ _ ; ^ _b_ ; _ _ ; _ _ ^ b_ _ c _ ; c_ ; _c _ ^c : _ : _ c ^?^ _ b_ > _? _ ^c _c _ _^ _ _ _b ^ _bc; _b_b_ : ; ^c^ : b_c_c^c_ _ c_ ; _c_ _> ; _b ^ : _^ ; _^ _b_ _ _ _^ ^_ _ : ^_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ^ _ _ _ _ _b_ _ _ _?_ _b ^ _ _ _ _ > ^ _c _c _ c: ^ _ _ _c ^ _c ; _ _b_ _ _c^c _b ? : ; ; _c : : _b_ ; : ^c c_ ^c_ ; _ ?_ : : : ^ ; ; ; ; ; ; ^_^; ^c_^ ^ : ^; _^? ^_b^ ^ : > ^ ^ b ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ; ^ ; c: _ _> _b ^? ^ ? ^ ^ : _ _ _ _ ?^ _ _ ^ > _b ^c _bg_ _cf_ ; _ ? c c; ^ ^ ^; ^ _ _ : _ ; ; ^c ^c ; ; _b_ ; ; ^c^c^c_ ; _ ; _b_c_b_c_ : ; _c^_ ^ _^ ; ^_ ^ _ ^c^ ; _ _ _ _ ^_b ^ ^ _ ^ : _ b ^ _b_ c : _ _ _ _ ^c c : ?_ _ _b_ b _c_ _ ^ : _> _ _ ^ _ ? _ ; _ ; c ^c_ ^ ; _b_> _c ; ; _c_ : ; _ ; ^c_ _c^ ; ; ; ; _b ^ ; _ ^ ^ ^ _b _b b ^ : ^ _ _ ^ ^ ^ c ^ c_c^ _ _ > _ _ _ _ : _ _c _ ?_cc ? ?^ ? ; b_ _bg_ : _ >_ ^cc ; _b_ > ; _b_ : ; _c^c_c_ ; ; : _ ; ; ; ? ; _ ; c^^ : ^_ ^_^ ^ ; ^ ^ ^ : ^c ^ _ ^ _ ; ^ ^ _c ^ ^c _ c^ ^ b_b; ^ ^ _ ; _ ; ?_ ; b _ c^ > _ ? _ ? : _c ^ ? ; _ _? ; _c_ _ > c : cf ? ^ ; ; : ; : : ^c _b_b_c_ _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ; ; _ ^c^ ^ : _ :c _ _ _ _c^ : _ _ : _ _ ; ; >_b _ _b ^ ; _ ^ ? _ _ ; ? c : ^? _ _ > c_ b_ ^ _ ; _> _c_ ; _c_ : ^ ;_ b_ : _ ; _ ; ; : ; ; ; ; ? _? ; ^ ^_b ^ ; _ ^ ^ _ b ^ ; ^c^ _ ^ _ ^ _ _ ^ ; ^ _ : ^c _ _cc ; _ _c ^ ?f ^ _ _c : ^? c _ _b ? c _ ? ; c_c^c _ ^ ? ? ; _ ; _c_c _? ; ^ ; : ; ; ; c ; ; : ; ? >_c_ _b_c_b _c_c _ ? ; _^ ^ ^c^: _ ^ _ ; _b_ ;b _^c ^ _ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ _b ^c ? _cc : _ ^ ^c^ ; ^ ^c _ ^ _b_ ^ ? ^ _ _ b ; _? _ _ : _ ; _ > _ _ _? ? ^ ; ; ; ? _ : _ ^c_ ; : _b ; ; _b_ ; ; _b_cf_ ? ; ; _ : _b^ ^ ^^ ^ _ _c^ ^ ^ ^ ^ : b ^ _ b ^ ^c ; ^ b_ b ^ ^ _ _ ?_ ^ ; ^ c _ _c _c^ _ ?_ >_ ? _ ? ? ; _ _? ; ; ? c ^cf _? : _ > _ : ; c_ _ _ ; : _c_c_ ; ; ; _ : ? _: > ; : _b_c^ ; _c_b_ ; ^ : ; ; ? _ ; ; ; ; _ ; _ ^ _ b_ : _ ; ^ ^ ^ ; ^c^ ; ; _c^ _ : _ ? cc^ _c _ ^ c ? ; c : ^ ^ ^ _ _ c^ ? ? _ _ ?_ ; ; _ ?_ ccc; _ _c c ?_ ? c ; ^c ^ ^c_ ; _^ _cf_ _? _b _cfc_ ; ; ? _b_> : : ?; : ; ^c_ ; ; _c_b_ ? _ ^_ _b_ _ ^ _ _b_ _b_ _ ^ ^ ^ b _ ^ ^ _> : ^ _ _b ^ _ ^? _ _ b ;b_ ; ; ; _ _ _ _ _ c: : _ ?_c_ ; ? ^? ? ^c_ ^c _b : : ? : ; ; ; ?_c_c_ ; _c_ ; ^ _ _b ^; ^^_b_ _ ;^ _ ^ _ _b _ ?^ _ ; _ _ ^ > _ b_ ^ _ _ : _c ? _ ; _c^ ? _ ^ _ ; _cc _ c_b_ ; _c_ b C_ _ _> ? ^ _?_cc ^ _ ? _c _ _c ^ ^c _bg ? ^ _? : _ _ ^c_c^ : ; ; : ^ ; _b_ ^ _ > _^c c: ^ c^ >_ ; ? _>_ : > ^ ^ ; _ _ _c_ ? _ ; ? ; ; _ c; _c c ? ; ; ^ > _ b_c ; _ ?_ ^ ? ^ ^ ? _ > : ^c_cg c^ : ?^ _b ^c: ? : ^c_c^ ; ; > ; ; ; ; ; ; ; __^ : _ _ ^c^ ^_ ;b ^ ^ ^ _ :_ _ _ _ _ _ _b ^ ^ ? ; _ _ _ _ _ _b_ _?_ c _>_ _ c^ c _ ? ^c _ _ c_ ^ c_ ; _ > _? _> _ ^ c_ c _ b _ ^ ; ; ; _ ; ?^c ; ? : ? : _c : : ; ; ; ; ; ; __ ^b^ ^c ^ _ _b_ : _b_ _ > _ ^ _ _ _b : ; ; _c _ _ _ ; c ^ ; _b _ _c^ ? _c _ ? ?^c_b ; : _ ; ^cc ?_? ? _ ?^ _b ? ; c; _ ? > ^c _bg ^c^ ? > : ? ^c^? _c_b_c_ ; ; : c; ; ?_ ; ; ; ; ^c^__b_b_ _^_ : ^b_ _ _ : : ^ ^_ ^_ _? ^ ^ ^c^ ^ ; _ ^ ^ > _ _ ^ ^ _? ; ^ ? c _ ^ ^ _ ^ c_ : : ; _ _b ; _ ?_ _ _? _ c _b_ c^ ; _ ? _ ^ c_>_? ? ^ > c^ _? ^ ; _ ? ; ^ ; _c_ : ; _c_c _c^c_ : ? ^c_c^ _ ; : : _ ; ; ; > ; ; ? ^ ; _ : ^_b : ^ ^_ _ _c^ : : ^ ^ _ ^ _ ^ ? ; _c_ : > _ ^ ? _ ; _c_ ?^ _ _b _ ?_ c_ _? ; _? ; _ c_ ^ _b g _ ; ; > ; c: _ ; _ ? ; ; : ? _c ; ; : c; _b_ ? _b_cc_b_c_ > ; _c ^c_c_b_ ;c_ ; ; ; ; ? ^ ^^_ ^_ : _^ _b_ _ ^ ^ _ ^ : _ _ ; ?_ ?_ ?^ ^ > bC _ ; ? _ ^ ?_ _ ; ? _ ? ? ? ^c ? ^ ; _? ; b_ ; ?^ ; ; ; ; ? > _ ; _? ; ^_ ; > : ; ; : : _ ^ _ ^c^? b_ ^_ _ _^ ^ ^? _ : ; : _b_ _ _ ; : _ _ ?^ _ _ _ ?f _ ? ? > _ ?_ _ > ; _ ; ^ : _ ? _c _ cf _ > ? ; c f_c ; ; > ; ; ; ; ; > ; : ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; ? b_^ : ^ _ _ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ^ _ ; _c ^ : ; _b_ ?^ ; ? _ ? _ _ ? _ ^ _ ^?^c ; ?^ _ ? _ _bg _b >_ ; ^c _>_ _c _ _c ; _? ; _ ? ? ; : : ; : ; ; ; ; : : ; : ? _ : ^ _b^ ^ ^ _c^c^ _c^c^ : _bc cb ; _ _ _ ^c _ : ^ _ c_ _ ; _ ^c _ ? ? ? c ?_ _ _b c: b _ c^cc ? ^ _c _ ? ^c ? ; _ ?^c _ ; ?_ ; _ _? ^c > ^c ? ? _ ; _ ; ; ; ; _ ; ; _> ? ; _b_c_c_ ; ? : ; ; : _b_ _ ^ _b_ : ^ ^ ^ ^ : ^ ^ : ^c^ _ ; : > : ; ; _ b : ? _ : _ _ ^ c_ ; ; c _ : _ ; ^? ? _ ^c _ > ^ ? c_ c; ; ; _c_c^ _ ; _b _c ^ ? ; ; _b ? > ; ? _c ; ; ; ; ; ; ; : :? :? ^; ^ _b_ c^ _c ^ _ _b_ ; ^ > >_ _ _ >_ _ _> ? ? ? ^c _ ; _ _ _ ? ; ; _? ; ^cf ? ; ? c^ _? ; ?_ ; > _c ; ? ; ? : c_c? _cc_ _ ; ; ; ; ; ; _ ; _ : : ; ; ; ; ; ? ?_ ; _^ _ ^ ^ _^ ^ _ ^ ^ ^ : : c^c^ _^cf _ _ ; b ; _ : _ : : ;c _ ?_ >_ ; ; _ ?^ ? _ ^c ^ ? _ c^ : _? ; _? _ _ ? _? ^c _cf ?^ ; _c c_ ; ^cgc; _ : ? ; ; ; ^c > ; ? >_c ;? ?_b_c^c; ; ;c_c_c_c_c__cc_c_c _ ;^ c^c_ ^; ^ >_ _c^b_ _b_b_ ^ ; ^ ^ ^ ^ _ _ ? _ ^ ^ : ^ ? b; _ ^ ? ?_ ? _ > ; > _ ? _ ? ; ; _c _ ? ; ? ^c ; c_b ^ ? ; _c ; : ; ; ? _c _>_ ?_ c^ ; _ ; ? ; ? ^ : ; ; : > :? ; _b_c^ ; ; ; : ; _ ; ?^ ; ; ; ;c_c^c_c_c_c; ?g_; ? ; ^ ^_ :_ ^ : ^ ; _c^ c^c_ _c^? ^c^ _cb ; _b_c : ^ > _c ; b_ _> ; _ c ; _ ? _ _b ^ ; _ c : _c _ c; ; _> _b_b ^ ? ; ?^ _ > _ >_ ?_c ; ; ; _c _ > ? _ : _ ; ; ? ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ;b_c^c_c_c_c c_c_c C_c :_ ^ ^ _^ ^ ;^c^_ ; _b_b_ ^ ^ : ; _ ; _ _c^ ^ _>_ ; _ : c ; _c ^ ? > c _b c ; c; > _b ; ; _ c_ ? ; _c ; _b ; ? _c_ ? : ? c; : ? > ; > ; ; c_ ; ; ; ? ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ;c_c_? c_c_c^c_? _ _: : ^_ : ; : _ ; : ^ ; c: : _ _c^c^c^? ^ _b _ _? _ ; _ ; ? _ _? ;^c _ >_ > ; _ ^cc _> c^ ?_c _ ?_ c_ c; c^ : : ; _ ? ^c^ ? ; ?_ ; _cf_ _ _ _ ; _> b_ ; ? ?^ :c_c_? ?__c_? >; ;b_c; ;cc_ ? ^ ^ ^ ^ ^_ ^ _^ __ ; ^ ^_ ^b_ c^ _ ^c ; : : ^c ^ : ^ _ ; c _c ^c^ : _ > _ ? ; ^ ; c ; _ ? _ > ?^ _ _ ? ? _c ; _ c _c_ ^c c; ? _ ? ? _ ; ?_c_? ; ?_ ? ; ; ; ; ?_c^c^c_c_c; ; ; ; ; :c^c_? ; ; ; :c^c_> >_ ; ; _c_ _ ; ?_c; ?g c^ ^_ ; _ ^ ^ _ _b_ ; c^_ _ _ c^ ^ : _c^? _b_ _ _> ; _ >_? ^ ^ ; ^ ; ; _ ; cg : ? _ c ; _ ? _c_ >_ ?_ ?_ ^? ; _c _> ? ; ^c _?^ ? ? ; _ : ? ^c _ _c : _c ; ; ; cg_c;c_b_; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;^ ;? ?_ ;b_c_c_c^c; :c_c_cC : ^ :_b :_b_ _ : ^ _ ^c_ ^ : ^ ^c^ ^c^ ^ ^ ^ ; ; ; ^ _ ^c^ _ ; _ _b _ ; ^c^ ? _c ^ ; ? ? ; ^ C ; ; ?^c_ _b ^c _? _c ; ? _? ; ^ ? ; ? ; c_ ? ? : ?_ ; > ; : ; c^? : _c^c _c_c ? c_b_c_b_c^c_b : : _? ?_c_> ?c_c_c_? ^ ; c^; _^ _c_ ; _c^ : _? ^c_> _ ^ : _ ; > _b_ ; c: _ : : c ? cg_ ? _c_ ? ; ? c; _?_ ?^c ^cg; ; ; ? _c _c _b : _bg ? ^c ; ; ; ? ; : ; ; ? c_c_c >_cg; ; ; ; ; ; ; : ;c; ; ; ; ;c; ;? ?_c; ; ; ?_? ; ^_b_b ; ^ : ^ : ^c_ ^ ; ; _b ^ : _ ; : b__ : > ? ; ?^ _ _ ^ bc_b ^c cg ^?_ ? _ : c_c ; > _c > _ ; ; c_c_ c_? ; ; : ? ; _c b_b ; ; _c^ ; : ? ? ; ; ; ?^ ; ; ; ;c_b_c; ; ; ; ; ;c; : ; ;c ?_ ; ; ; ? ^ ^c_ _c^c^ : ^c^ : :_ ; _b_ ^c^ ^? _b_ ; _ b _c^ _ ^ ?^c^c^ ? _ _c_ ; ; _c ; ^ ? _b _c_ > _?_c_ ? ; ; ? b : _c_ c_ _c; ? > ; ; ; ? ; ? _c : _c _c_c_cf_ : ? ? ; ? ? ; ; ; : ? ?^ ;c_c^c_c; ;c_b; _ : ; ;c; ? ?_c;c_c_c_c_c;c_? ; : _b_c_ b_ : _? _b_ _b_ ^c^ >_ _b_c^ c: ; ; ?^ > ^c ; ^c ? ; : cc^ ; ; ; ; _c_b : ; ; ^ _c_ c_ ?_ ; : ?_ > ; ; _c_ > >_ ? _c ; : > ; _c_ ? : ; ; ?_c_b_c_c_?; ; ; ; :_? b_c_> ; ;c; ; ;c_cg ^c^c^ ; ^b_b^ : _c^ ; _ _b ^_ _b_ _b_ _^ ^c^ ; ^ ? ; _ ^ ; c _c _ ? ? : ?_ ? ?_ ? _ : c: ; ; _ ?^c_c^ ; ; _c_ ;_ ? c^ ? >_b ; ? ; _c^c_ ? _c_c_c_c_c_cfc_b_c_?: ; ; ; ; ;?_b_ ; ; ?_ ;c_c; ;?^c;c; ; ; ; ;c_c; ^c^ _c_b_ _ _b_ : ^^^ ; _b_: ; : _c_ ; ^ ; ? _c ? ^c^ >_ ; ^ ; ; : ? ; _ _cf; > ; ; _c c^ ?_ ?_ > ; _ ? ; _b _? ; g ; ? _c^ ? ; ? _cc; c ; ^ : > ? ; ? ; ; ? ?^c_c; ; ; _ ;c_? ?_c_c_? ;c_c; : ;c^c; _c; ;c__? ?_ ;c_c; ;c_c ^c^ ^b_ : _^ ^ : _^ :_ ; ^_ ^_ _> ; ^ ; ; c _ ; ^ ; ; ^ _ ?_ _ > ? c^ ; ; c_ ?_ ; ? ; _c_c_b ; _c_c_ > ? _b _ ? c: ; ?_c ; ; ? c_c_ ; ? ; ; ? ? ? ; _c; ; ; ? ? ; ?_c_c_cgc_c_?_ ; ; ?_ ;c_c; ; ;b_c^cg^? ;b_b; ; ;c_c_c;b; ;c^c: ; ;c_?; ;b_c_c; ^ : ^ : _ ; _c_^ : __ _c^ : _ ^ ; _ ; ; ; ^cg ; _b_> ; ; _ ^ ? ; ? _ ? : ? _ _ ? c c_ ; > : ; ; ? ; ? ?_ : ? ; ; ; ?_ ? ; ^ ? ? : ; ? >_c ; ; ? ? ; ; :c : ? b_c^c ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; ;c_ ;c__? : ; ; ; ;? ?_c; _?_c; ;c >_ ;c_c_c; ; >_ : ^c^ ; ^c^ ; _b^_ ; _b_ ; ?^ _ _ : ; ; ; ^? ? _b_ _b ?_cg : ; : ? ? ; _? ?_cf; _c ; ? :_b__c ?; : ; ; ?_b_c ; ? _c ? ; ; ; _c ? ? _c_cg ?g_c ; > ; ; : ; ? ; _c_c : ?_ ;c^c_c^c; _c: ;b; ^c_; ?; ;^ ;> ?^ ;: _? ;c_?; ; ;c_c_c; ;c ; _^c _b_ ; c: ^ : ; ^c^ c^?^ : _ ; _c ; _b ; _c _b_b _ _ b_ ? : _ _ ? _c ? _c ? ? ; _cc^ ; ; > ; ; ; > _ ; ; ? _cf_ > _cg: ; ? ?_c_? ? ;b_c_c_c^? >_c_?_c; :c; ; ; ?_?_ ;^ c; ;c_c_? ;c_c; ;: ;c_c^ ;c; ;? ?; ; ; >__ _^ : : :_b_^ _ ; ; ^? : : _b _c _ ; ^cf _? ^cc^? b; ? ? b_? ?_cf_ ? > ?^c_c_ ; ; ; ? ; ; ? ; ? _ccc_cfc_cb; ? ^ ; ; ?_c_c_c__ ; c : ; ? ? ; ; ?_ _c_c_c_b; ;b; ?^c; ;c_?: ;b_c:_ :? ; ;b_c; ;c_?; ?_ ;c; ^c^ : ^ ; _b ; ; ^c^ c^c^ ; ^c^ ; _: ^c^ : ; : ; b ^ : ^cb _? _c^ ^cf_ ?_ c^c _c_?^c^ ? ; _ c _c c_c ; c_ ? ; ? ; ^? c_ ; ; _b > ; ; > ?gc^c; ; ; : ; ; ? ; ? ; ; ;c^c; ; :c; :c; ; ^ ; > ?_ ;? ?_ ;c__ ; ;? ;c_c;: ;_ : ;c_c; ;c_?_ c^ _: ^ : ^_ ;^ ^ ^c^c_ ; ; _b_b_c_> ; ; >_ ; ; _b_ > ; ^c _c _ : _c ; ? ; c^ ? ?^ ?_? ?^ c_? c cf_> _c ; > ?_c_c_c_b_c ? ? ; ? ? ; ; ; ; ; ;c ;? ? ; : ; : ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; : ;?; : ;b_c: ;c^c; ;? ?_^cC_c: _>__c; :c_c_c: ;?_> ?__c; ;c_ ; : ?_^ ; ; : ^c^c_ c; _b >_b_b_ : ;b ; _bg ? _b _? : ; ? ; ; : ? ?_b _>_c_c _bg > ; _b : ? : _> ?_c_c_c C ? ; ; : > ; ; ? ; ; ? ; ; _c_c; ; ; ; ;c_ ; ; _ ; ; ;?^? ?__c; ;; _ ;c__? ;c; ;; ;b_^? ;c;^_?_? ; :c_c; _ ;_ c: ^c^c^ ; ; ^c c^ ^ _^ : ; : _> ? _b _c _c^c_ ; ; ? cc ; ? ? : ; ? ; _c_c_c_c ^c^ ? _c _b C > ;^? ; ; : ? ; ; > ; : ; ? ; ; : :c: ; ; :c; ;c^c;?_ :? >_ ;c_c_c:_c: ?^ ;?; ;b_c; : ?_c_>_^; ;c: ?_?_c;? ;^?^ ^ : _b_c_b_ _^ ; _b_ ?; : ; ; _ ?^ ^ ; : _ ? ; : _> ; ; > ? ; ?_ ? ? _c_ ; cg_b_ ; ? ; ? ; ; : > ; ; ; : ; > ? ; ; ; ;c^c^c_c: ; ; ; ; ;c: ?; ;_b__c; :; :c^c_>; _? ?; ;_ ;c__? ;b__ ; ;c__?_^_?; ?_?_c;c ; : > : : ^ :_ ; ; _b; ^c^ _b_^ _b_b ^c_^ ^c_ ; _b_ ; ; ; ; _ > ; c : ? ; : ? ?_c ; > ; ? : _c ; : ? ? ; ; ; > ; ; : ; ; ? ? ? ; ? ; : ;c_b_c; ;> ; ; : ; ; ; ? ; ;c_c: ?_ ;? ;c;_ ;? ?_^c;> ?_c;_?;_> ; ;?_>;_c_;c_c;c^c;? ;c; ; ^c^ : _ __> ; _^_b_ ^c^_ _^ : : _b_b_b_> >_c^_ _c^c_ _b_c^c^ ; ; c^cf _c_b ; ? ; ; ; _c_c ; : ; _ : ; ? ; ; ; ? ; ; : ?_ ; ; _? ?^ ; ?_b_> ; ; ; ;>_ ^ ;? ?^ ;c ?_ ;? c^c_c;> : ;_? ; ;c; c;>_? ;?^; ; _c_;c;_; ; ?_>_c;> ;?__c;c__?; ; : ^c^ ^_c^ _b^_ ; ; _b_: ; ; _b_b ^c^_ __ ; ^c^ ; ; ; ^c^ ; ; _? _c_bc: ; ? b; ; ?_ ?_c ? _b ; ; ; ^? ?_b_c_c_c_c_b_b_? ?g_c_c_b_c ?_c^cC b; ; ;c C ; : ; ? ?: ;> ?^c_?_ ; ;?^c__? ?; :; :? ?; ;> ;?_ : ;c; ^?_> : ;>__ ;?^ ; ;?:;b; ; : :c:? ;c:__?_ ;c: ?:c_c ^c^ ; ?_^ : _b_b_^ _b^c ; : _b_ ; _c^ ; : : ; _b_bg _b_b_ _ : ; : ;? ; c ? : ? ; ; ?_c_ ; ;? ?c_c_b ; ? ? ;c ;b_b_c^c_c^c_c_c_b_b; ; c_c_c_c_b_c_b; _? >_b_c ?; _; :? ; :?^ ; :; ?__?_ ;^?;^_?;^;b; ;>;^?_;; _;> >;; ;c;c_c; ; _ ; : : ^c_^ : >_^ : : ; : : _c^c^_ : ; ; ; ; ; ; > ; : ; ; : ; _b_c_b_c^c_ ; c_c^ : ? _cf : ? ?^? ; ; ; : > ? : : : : ; ; : : > > : : ; ; ; ; ;c_b_c:c^? ?_b;? >;c_c_c; ?; _ ;c^?_ ;; :_ ;?^_?__? ?b;_>; ?_c;^?^; ?:c;: _; ;^?__b;;c^?_?; : ; : : _b_ : ; ; : : ; : ; ; : _b :c^c^? c^c_b_c_b_ ? ? ; ; : > ?__ ; ; ? ?_ ; ; _b_c^c_c_ ; ;c_c; ; ; ; : ; ; : ; >_ ; : ; ; ;c_c_b; : ;^c_b_c_ ;c_b_c; ?_ ;>;; ;c ; :c; : ?_ ;^? ?^ ;_b;; ;c;^c:_: ;;_;b; ?__c:_:; ^_c;:c: ?_^c; ?_;_; _ _b_b_ ^c_c_^; ; : : ^_b_b_^ ^c _bg_ ; _b_c_c_c_c c^c^ ; : ; ; ; ? ? : ? ; ?_ ?g ? :c_c_c_b_b_?^c; ; : : ; ; ; ? >_ ; ;c_c: : ;b_c^c_b;c^c_>_^c: ; ;c_c_b_c;b_?; ; ;b_b; ?: _ ; ?_c; ; ;c^c___?:_>_? ?_:c^c__?;_>__c;c;;?^; ;c;:_?;_?; >_c;? _b__ ; : ; ; _b_b_^ : : ^c^c^_ : : : ; ; ; ; _b_^ _c^c_ ; _c_b_c^c^c^c^?^ ;> b_b_b; ; ? : ? ? ; ? ? ; ;b_c_b_c_c_c_c ;> ?; ^ ; ;c^c_c^c; ; ;^^c_c; ; ;b_c; : ; ; : : ;b_b_c; ; ;? ?^ ;b;b__?_c; ;?: ;?^; ;b;c^;? >;_?^?^ ; : :_? >_?:_ :;_;b_^?;;b;_^ :_ :_;^c :c;c: _b_c^b_^ > ^c^c^_ : ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ?_b_c_ : ; _ ? ? ; ; ; ; ; _? ? ;b_b ; ; ? ?^ :?_b_c^c_c: ; ; ;b_c_b; ;b; ; ; : ; ;b; ; ; ; ; : b__? ?^c_>; ;c_; ;> ;b_c;? ; ;__b__ :c__ ;__c;^;;_;> >;;c_^ ;>_?;;>;; :c;:;_?_;? ^_^ ; ^; : : : ; ; ; ; ; ; :c_b_b_cf_ ? ?_ ; ; ;c^c_b_c_b_b_c^c: ; ; _ ;c^c;b_ ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; :c^?_c^? ?;_cB ?^_c:_c: >_ ;> ?_c: ;_b_^_?^? >;;b; ?:?:c:c:_? ?_b_;b;_> c:?^;_c^;;c ;:c;: :_ ;_ ;^;; ;^c^?_^;;c:c; ?^ ; : >_^ ; ; ; : : : ; ; ; : : : ; ; ; ; : ; ; : ; ; : : :c_b_b_c: _b_c_c^c_c: ;c^c: > ?^c^c_c: ; ; ; ;b_c_c^c_c^c; ; >_ ; : ;_c^; ;c^?_b_: :c_c; ;c^c; ;b_c: >; ; ;c^_? ?_c_? ;_b__ ; ?^__ : : ;:c;>_?:; :_;:;_?;>_?:c;>;c:;_>_?:_:?^?;b;?;_;^?_?_:_;_ : ; :_b_: ; ?^_b_^ ; _c^_ ; :c_c^c^b_b_: ; ; >_ ; ; ; : : ; ; ; ; ;b_b_b; ; ; ;b_ : :c_cf_ > : ; ? ; ;c^c^c^c^_ : : : >_^?; ?_b;b; ;; ;c^c; ;c^c: :c^c: ;b__> ?_ ;^? >;_ ;> ?_>_;>_:?^;^?:_?:_: ;;^_^_c:__b; : ;: ; :c : ; : : :_> ;b^_> :c^^? ; :_ ;^ : : : : ; ; ; ; ;b_b; ; ; ; ; ;c_b_b_c:c^c_b_c_b_c_c_c: ; ; ; ; ; ; : :c_c_c_b;c_b; :c_^? :c^_> ?^ :c^_ ; ?_ ;b_c: ;c^c; :c__? : ;c^c; ;_^c^c_^? ; ;_> ?_^_? :_ ;b;b; :c;_:c:_;^?_>_?^?_;^?^?^;^?_>_>_>_:_;b;c;^;c; p148-3 ftsTitleOverride Insectivores (page 3) ftsTitle A Madagascan tenrec. These round-bodied animals forage, chiefly at night, for earthworms and grubs. They are the most fecund of insectivores, producing a litter of around 15, although a record litter of 31 has been recorded. Insectivores (3 of 4) Tenrecs All but 3 of the 34 species of tenrec (family Tenrecidae) are confined to Madagascar and the nearby Comoro Islands. In the absence of other insectivores, they have adopted the life styles of insectivores elsewhere. In most cases the Madagascan tenrecs have been little studied, and several species are rare. The common (or tailless) tenrec has rather spiny fur, while the hedgehog tenrecs are so spiny as to be superficially very similar to the true hedgehogs. The three other species of tenrec - the otter shrews - are found in western Africa, and are indeed rather otter-like in appearance. The largest, the giant otter shrew, found in the rain forests of central Africa, grows to around 75 cm (2 1/2 ft) and has a flattened muzzle covered with stiff whiskers. 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)0y-L--p-L Q,U,U- y1Q01U,PU y,L,Q)P(,--x -0-(-P(H- -L-xu x-TUP,)y Uy0yUP P,$U,L )x-uTQ L-(Q1 1Q,p1, 1Q,P) )x1UTQ,y-P(P P-,y,y1 yTQTP L,1T-LU P)0Q,M ,Q,M,-P -$--, Q,y,-TQ$ P,Q,), $QUt1t1,y0y -L-0- p,Q0$U,P) QT-1PU,M yTx-$ PPUP,u(Q,Q( -UT-T 0U1PLQ,UTu $,M,U,P),U,- -,-$,p 1P-,U ,Q0P- 1P)0$1P-P P-UTQ,)0Q0 ,L-L, 0UTy0 -U0Q( ,Q(1P1-L, U,1Q0Q Q,L1) $-0Q0- MUT1P -x,M, ,L,UUP1P)P, y,y0u1,U ,P-T,$ Q0,-,M,Q -T-1xy,P 0)PLQ) (Q(0Q01 -,U,)QUP( ,Ut1Qt( L,P,- MUPy,y0 Q0U1P1T 1U$-T, Q,(1TU, $P(-,t P)Q(Q(y Q1PL-( -,P(U$ y,P,L- $,,1,Q $$1P,UL -(1,,,--x y-1,-T 1,L$, TQUU,1$x--L p,UT-,1 P-y0, -U,$- QT,Q( P),1y, I0Q($- PU$9t- 1P)t(1 P-(-, $-,-U -(-(- Q(,Q(U- LUQ0U $-L,) 1,$-,Q)P MQT$,1 y,1(-1 y-P(- U,-0-,-P)u -M,-$ P-,Q,Q P)T-1 )P,M, -x-P, L-$1Q, $-u0Q ,1T1]U- -1Q$$ 0-t0U --TQ- xyTy- ]yTU, UP-,-, 11-0Q Uy0y,U1 UyUx1y, yxyy]y 1TUxUYUyUxU UUU1x1y1y -0111x1 p148-4 ftsTitleOverride Insectivores (page 4) ftsTitle A European hedgehog curls into a protective ball. A band of muscles running along the border of the prickly coat are contracted to draw the hedgehog into its ball. A Madagascan tenrec. These round-bodied animals forage, chiefly at night, for earthworms and grubs. They are the most fecund of insectivores, producing a litter of around 15, although a record litter of 31 has been recorded. Insectivores (4 of 4) Hedgehogs The hedgehog family (Erinacidae) consists of two main groups, the moon rats (or gymnures) of Southeast Asia, and the true hedgehogs. The moon rats lack spines, but have long blunt-nosed snouts like true hedgehogs, and are among the largest insectivores, weighing up to 2 kg (4 1/2 lb). The true hedgehogs are native to Africa and Eurasia. They are covered in spines, and when alarmed can curl into a defensive ball. Hedgehogs feed on a wide range of small invertebrates, such as slugs, snails, insects and their larvae, as well as young mice, birds' eggs and other small animals when they find them. They have adapted well to suburban gardens - but their spines are no protection against road traffic. They are mostly ground-dwelling, but can swim and climb - if they fall they use their spines to absorb the impact. In the northern part of its range the European hedgehog and its close relative, the Romanian hedgehog, hibernate. The more southerly species, such as the desert hedgehog, do not normally hibernate, although they may aestivate (become torpid in the summer heat) Solenodons The two living species of solenodon (family Solenodontidae) are confined to the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola in the Caribbean. They resemble large robust shrews, and can weigh up to 1 kg (2.2 lb). Although they mostly eat insects and fruit, they also feed on reptiles and poultry. Both species are legally protected, but are in imminent danger of extinction, particularly as a result of deforestation and predation by introduced cats and dogs. Soon after the arrival of the Spaniards in the Caribbean in the 16th century, another family of shrew-like animals (Nesophontidae), which was found on Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico and other islands, became extinct. Elephant shrews The 15 species of elephant shrew (family Macroscelididae) are such bizarre creatures that they are sometimes classified in an order of their own. They are usually grouped with the insectivores, however, on account of their dentition. All the species of elephant shrew are found only in Africa. They take their name from their long flexible snout, which, while not prehensile, can be moved round as the animal searches for food. The largest - growing to around 50 cm (20 in), of which just under half is tail - is the checkered elephant shrew of central Africa, which feeds mainly on ants, termites and beetle larvae. Some species carry a type of malaria that is not transmitted to humans, and have consequently been used in medical research. * EARLY MAMMALS * HIBERNATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 0U10U U10U01U1 U1U,1 -T1x$ P1,-, MP]U,$-L011 ,Q,0Q 0U-p- -,y1P( ),Q0Q-, Q0-T1Qy] M,M,(U,,1P(T-T-Ty,L,, P,L-P 1-T11T1P T1110U10 tUUU1Y -19U9xU1T 19U90 x-T1-L$, U0-1T (P,(P ,L--0Q,( (T-L,-1,M0T1,Q P-LP-, 1T10Q, -TU1T xTy11]-$ 0]]0U,U,1 U-0-9 -1-T, (U-0Q 0y-U,-L ,U10yT- Q-0Q, yUyx1P 1P1,-, U0U-(P1( U0yyu-T L1P]P1T $1]]U (1\-- 1T1U0 TU19- ]Y19x-P 0Q0U-(P)T M-0y11UUT1U1U0U1--x- 11,u0-P, ]TU]1P1U1TT9 $$UU0 x1U1P ]]]1U 1U10y1xy1 U,)P1,L- -T,(1$,L1TU P%,$, ,L,L-LP ,$-0y0P, ,-01TQ, -1U1Y U-\1] 01-T-Q(,,Q1, L-0Q,(U -T1y91 0U1Q,-x1-P(Q P)$-$,L$U L,y]L y01y,H0yx-0UQ-y 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-011T1U1-,U-0 1]1T110U0QP L,u0uTUQP1P)- U01-0- T111T1T1 T10U1x1T1U0- -T10U1T1T U01x9U,1 -T1xUTTP(, ,--01-,U01P1-(Q0-L,-0 -,1U81UU10- 011TU9 190U011U0-- ,T-xQxy-T-T-, 1Q0-0U U,11U -1-1T11U U0U1P1U 0---,P -,-0U-T U1T1U11T P111U1y0U0-,Q T--,U -L1QTy-t1 -1-1P U1-1P1T1P-L-T )-1T1y 1T1U0U1U1]]U9U1U0U1T M0QUxUyTUUy1y,P U0-,- p150-1 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The pacas of South and Central America are among the larger rodents, growing to around 70 cm (28 in) in length. Timid and usually solitary, they lie up during the day in riverside burrows, emerging after dark to forage for roots, grasses and other plant matter. They are good swimmers, readily taking to water to escape predators. Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (1 of 7) Rodents are easily the most numerous mammals in the world, with many species having populations running into millions. Because species such as rats and mice live alongside man, they also have the widest distribution of any wild mammals. The lagomorphs - rabbits, hares and pikas - have certain structural features that distinguish them from rodents, but recent studies of animal body proteins indicate that they are closely related to rodents. The same studies show that hyraxes - despite their small size and rodent-like appearance - have no close relatives but the elephants. The order Rodentia is by far the largest order of mammals, containing around 1650 species in 28 families. Rodents account for about 40% of all known mammal species, and occur on all continents except Antarctica. The exact relationship between the various rodent families is much disputed. One possible classification divides them into three suborders, the distinction being based primarily on the structure of the skull: Sciuromorpha - squirrels and squirrel-like rodents; Myomorpha - rats, mice and related species; and Hystricomorpha - porcupines, cavies and their relatives. Rodents: common features Despite the large number of species, rodents are remarkably uniform in structure. All have a similar arrangement of the teeth, with two pairs of incisors, one above and one below, then a gap before the cheek teeth - the canines and the anterior premolars are missing. In all species the characteristic incisors grow continuously throughout the animal's life. They are coated with enamel on the outside surface only, and therefore wear down faster on the inside; and because the upper pair grow over the lower pair and constantly work against them, the incisors are self-sharpening. Many species of rodent have cheek pouches, used for carrying food. Rodents are primarily vegetarian, feeding on seeds, leaves, roots and other plant matter. Although some species are extremely specialized, rodents in general eat a remarkable variety of foods. Many desert-dwelling species - the Australian native mice, for example - can live their entire lives without ever drinking. They manage to derive all the water they need from the seeds and grains upon which they feed. Most rodents are relatively small. The largest - the capybara - grows to 50 kg (110 lb) or more, but the majority are less than 1 kg (2.2 lb) and there are many species weighing less than 10 g ( 1/3 oz). * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture TxtTy UTxH] xTyTu PUt0P% Ux,yP $-(y\ PqxTP TTyPy x9(TT$ ,UTyx \uxTP ,L-PUT 0TTtPxT 0PUyTU TTUTyx Ux-x- ,L,yy\ Uyx]u QTPTu y,xTP -UUx1 x\xx,P(-\ 9xTt-Ux PPL$e 0H1,] TxUtT $UPUx \T0]x LyTxy\u `x1$$ \tUU- TUUPTqTP1 yxTuy $QxUx- P)0xP 1TUTUPxH T-x0x Ta$Tt 0y0u\ `t8$,Q ,xTP, ]xtUt ,y0yx UTPPUy0 Hy,y\x $1PTtyyT \xQxP T1t\Q xt1t$ $1P0y 0UPUU ],L,$ 1],P0Q, (PYxx$ U,Ux- ,]ty,xy\p x-xPP 0yTUTUx tyPT-xy Tyx-t -0y0yPx 0xyx, x-xyI )PUT] TQTyUt1 ,yUTt ,UPL- 1t$1, 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0U00U8 81T18 0]08x0 ]\]8]\ ]8U]0 1`]\U y8]0\ ,9x90T9U8y101T 10]T1 0y01T0 901\18T9 18T9T 81\198y9T1U8 y\]]\T1 81\9\1T8]0 \19T9T 8]\T] U0U0]8 90U8T0 1T0y9 ]\1\09 U089\ ]]8]999 ]01U8\ 0Q9T9 T9T]\ 1T9T9]] 818U0 0]\]\]0 ,8]0T 0]0]00 aU1]9 8y8U81\ 0a]\]9 0y0]\]U 11\,TU T1T1T T1810 T90T1\1\1T U\]8]\U8U\x 1U0101 8]9\1a 1]8180x 0]9T0]0 P01\101\9 aT]09x 1TU\]T98U\ 99x09T TyxUTx1 1]1x9x9 1x9T9x T,Uxx 1\]T]\9U\]x P0]89 `]\9]\T TTU1x1 9T9T0 TTU\]\U80 U8]1T0 8U8UU\]]\U 9\1\1 1\]U8]]\\U8]0 0-0U]T y]\0U]\\ T1]\T p150-2 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 2) ftsTitle Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (2 of 7) Squirrels and squirrel-like rodents Squirrels are found in most parts of the world except Australia, but are particularly diverse in Asia, where the majority are tree-dwelling and often very agile. Squirrels are generally keen-sighted, and most species are active by day and often extremely brightly colored. Some species - the flying squirrels - are capable of gliding on a membrane stretched between the front and hind feet. Ground squirrels are particularly widespread in North America, and some species - the prairie dogs - are often highly gregarious. Prairie dogs live in huge colonies known as 'towns', which sometimes have populations running into millions and in which a complex system of social organization operates. At the turn of the 20th century a single town in Texas was estimated to cover 64 000 km2 (25 000 sq mi) and to contain 400 million individuals. The largest of the squirrels are the marmots, which can grow to 7.5 kg (16 lb). They are found over much of the northern hemisphere, particularly in mountainous areas. Unlike the majority of rodents, marmots hibernate and several species make hay in summer and store it underground for use in winter during spells of mild weather. * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread $H*H$$ $H$HNH$H$2 ,HNH$$W H$$V,V $$H*H9N H,VWV H*H$$H, HN$H$,V H*H$W H$H,2 H*H$, WV,VWVV] 2$HLN HNNHNHNH*H $N$NH HN$H*H$H,+ V,+VWV WW$HNHON HNH$$H,+ 2+,$$H$ $H$H$NH HNHN$H$, ,$$H, WW$H*UN HN$H*H$NHN HN$NH$H$,V V,$H[N H$H$H, ]2$H_N H$H$H,V +,$HcN H$H$W H$H$,V 2$H$NHlN HN$H$$ ,$HsN HNHN$H,+WV $H$NHwN p150-3 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 3) ftsTitle A North American porcupine. Whereas the Old World porcupines are mainly ground-dwelling and rather cumbersome, the New World species are generally more agile, and most have adapted to life in trees: they have strong broad feet, well suited to climbing, and some have prehensile tails, which they use to grasp branches. Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (3 of 7) The two species of beaver are among the larger rodents. They are well adapted to their semi-aquatic life style: the ears and nostrils can be closed when the animal is submerged, while the webbed hind feet and paddle-shaped tail provide excellent propulsion and control when swimming. Beavers are capable of modifying their environment in ways that few animals other than man can rival: they fell trees and build dams to create the swampy conditions they favor. The American beaver was in the past of considerable economic importance - its fur was once the mainstay of the Canadian economy. The Eurasian species is very similar in appearance and habits to its American relative. Rats, mice and their relatives Rats and mice are found in almost all parts of the world, and have been introduced into regions where they do not occur naturally. Characterized by their long snouts and naked scaly tails, rats are among the most successful and adaptable of all mammals. The impact of rats and mice on humans has chiefly been negative: as well as carrying diseases, they cause considerable damage to crops and property. Perhaps the most bizarre rodents are those belonging to the African mole rat family. Living entirely in underground burrows and feeding on plant roots and bulbs, they are virtually blind, but are superb diggers and can even gnaw their way through soil. They work together in teams, and exhibit an extraordinary system of social organization. Because of their large numbers, species of rodent such as voles and lemmings are important prey for owls, foxes and many other predators. In northern areas rodent populations are often cyclical, building up over periods of three to four years into plague proportions, before crashing when they overexploit their food supply. This population crash is often followed by that of their predators. Porcupines, cavies and their relatives Most species of porcupine are active by night, and feed on a variety of plant matter. They are characterized by the long spines (formed from modified hair) that grow thickly on the back and sides. The African and Asian species have particularly long spines, which can grow to 35 cm (14 in) in length. The New World porcupines are broadly similar in appearance to the Old World species, but - unlike the latter - most of them are tree-dwelling. The cavies, or guinea pigs, are ground-dwelling rodents found only in South America. Most species are social, and have the rather thick-set body form of the domestic guinea pig. Although in a separate family, the capybara of South America - the largest of the rodents - has the appearance of a giant guinea pig. It is semi-aquatic and has partially webbed feet. It too is a social animal, always living in family groups. * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture T8xHi 0$l\P, >_>z ::; : z>: Pxt<, -tT$11 H0TQ` ,L,P\T -1U,9 lPtlP -1U1]PP 0,0t0x l]Pp\Q 2jIV b,P:%b$j H]i0$y0 Q:V]02f) xUPTP t\9\$ :b-^T >1;-^, \x9yPT P0$\, 0TUxxy,xp (t,]0 U>ubUb $,P0PL 9119% y0y$8$ jub121 (yxUT$ 11--U TT,0x P0P(,P HT0$$ \$0,( $TttP Ugybz >yby t>uj^G <PPl>T PP,T0T,t 2 Qc1 0TT,L ,xTxTP0P :U:U>Q 6Q:9: U0]x8 Q>u>^ .bYbV=Q bVY:u 11^1:Q 8LTt,p x,QDx 2:Vbm ]]12b Rbf{> ]Pa]\P ,T,00 ^PP$$ \lH\, $1T0P ,(,T, L,TTP0 0P0P(x T,x0Q (0$,T T,0,0 9Q0T_ ],UU- zVTUz 9l\V` L\lx< ax2b9x\ V^--1 P\T0$ ,xxPP PP0t0 -0TxP TP0TPx \$0$$ p150-4 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 4) ftsTitle Mad as a March hare: at the beginning of the breeding season, male hares - such as these common (or European brown) hares - indulge in wild antics. Striving for the attention of females, rivals box, kick and bite, only stopping when one of the combatants turns tail and runs. Females not yet ready to mate may also join in the fray, to ward off over-eager suitors. Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (4 of 7) Rabbits, hares and pikas The order Lagomorpha is made up of just two families: around 40 species of rabbit and hare (Leporidae) and 14 species of pika (Ochotonidae). Unlike rodents, the lagomorphs have two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw, although only one is functional, the other being tiny and undeveloped. All lagomorphs are herbivorous, and have the curious habit of eating their own fecal pellets, thus gaining extra nutritional value from their food. They live in a wide variety of habitats, including woodlands and swamps, but generally favor open grassy habitats. Rabbits and hares are highly successful and adaptable mammals. The hind limbs are strong and disproportionately large, giving these animals their swift bounding movement. Although the names are often used loosely, 'rabbit' is usually used to describe those species that live in burrows and give birth to small undeveloped young. Hares, on the other hand, live in shallow surface depressions known as forms, and their young are well developed at birth, with eyes already open and a full coat of hair. As well as enhancing hearing, the large ears typical of rabbits and hares help species that live in dry, hot areas to disperse excess heat. One species, the European rabbit, has been domesticated. It has been introduced into areas of the world where it is not native and has become a serious pest, causing widespread damage to grasslands and crops. Attempts to control it have included the introduction of the myxomatosis virus, a disease originally found in a South American species of rabbit. Pikas, or conies, have short rounded ears, a rounded body, and a stubby tail. All species live on rocky slopes, mostly in the mountainous parts of north and central Asia, with two species occurring in western North America. They collect green plants in summer, which they dry and store away for use in the colder months, but they do not hibernate. The Tibetan pika occupies one of the highest habitats of any mammal - up to 6000 m (20 000 ft) in the Himalaya. Hyraxes The seven species of hyrax (also called dassies), although superficially rodent-like, are quite unrelated, and are placed in an order of their own (Hyracoidea). All species are herbivorous, and are found in Africa and parts of the Middle East. Most species are sociable, living and grazing in small colonies. Hyraxes have curious hoof-like feet, used effectively by some species for climbing in trees. * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture TT$,0 $,T80 ,$0T, P(xTPLx \$Tx\ $,P00 (H001T ,yxTx- P,P,M0 ,LPy, Tx0PTu (10P11y\U ,(P($^ TTtt,H TPyTU1T P01TUxP1 1x,L- QU,1,, 1U00, TTx,TP 1T0X, x0P)x 1U0u]xUy\ y]TUy Uxyx] L0x,yT 1UU0, U](tU L,,)] TTxP1, 0y19T T,L0,uT $0PpP 0Tt,(P ,q10P, P(T1P $Q1,1 PTU0T 1T,P(,,$ P0PLP T0x\y ,y,xUx x,T,0 1P0-1T0T UT-xt L,TQ( TUtPL 9xx1x 1xTyTPU P,TP0u0P( xTUTxTy 0PQy0y 1T0,x u0xQT LP(P(T0 x,y]x Ty0T, tUx-x0x P,10T T0-,, -x,t0y LPxUT 1T0Q8y ,PLx,tx Tt(-x0xP Tx1t1T,P tLtLx0T0 1P11, x0t0,p, ,LTP,x,LU 0x,xT ,pPTt TU0P0 xx,,x,LU0 q0P-9 P0xy,LPx 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4lHtt ttTT,, Tx$-a\ P(0T0 t0PLPP T\,x,p pPt(P P0xt(t0T Tt0x, (t\xT PPx|,y 0xTxT P0xPT% tT|$T PtTHa ,yUxU 0xTt0 1,Q1,U PPl,L (P(yU x\LTtP =\aTPL0 ,T,PT x0x]U ,,x4$ T,(P0 ]xTP(, 0x101 q]T10 1T]TU01 T],T, Pyx0t 8PU1` p150-5 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 5) ftsTitle Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (5 of 7) RODENTS AND ECONOMICS The impact of rodents on mankind has chiefly been negative. The brown rat, black rat and house mouse in particular cause billions of dollars' worth of damage to crops, stored foodstuffs and property. In the USA alone the damage caused by the brown rat has been put at a billion dollars a year. * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1--1--1--1 1--1-- --1--1-- 1--1--1-- --1-- 1--1--1-- 1--1-1 -1--1--1-- 1--1- 1--1-- 0109- (-(0-0-- (0010 x0x0xx0x 0x0x0x xx0yxy (x(p(p :BCB: (T(10T 10--110-10 0-0-0 -10--0--10 0-0--0- 00-0--0-y 0100-- 01101y x0)00 (0-00 -y8y1y0y -0y9x1 (0L00( Uxx\xx 8U010101 p)p0xq(p p0pp(p x0yxx0 (pH(p 10010-0 x0xL0TTp 01(0x00 p150-6 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 6) ftsTitle Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (6 of 7) Rats also spread disease. Fleas carried by rats in turn carried the bacterium responsible for bubonic plague, the disease that killed a third of the population of Europe in the 14th century and 11 million people in India between 1892 and 1918. Other diseases passed to humans by rats include Rocky Mountain spotted fever and leptospirosis (sewerman's disease). * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1--1--1- --1-- --1--1 --1--1--1- --1-- 11--1--1-- Yy2z:1 01008 0:Y:9: ::99:: lppLpy CBC;B x01Yxy -1U1-)110q xpxpx(px( $0(Hx() U9y1y 18010T00 )x(0)p0 1-1)1U BBC : B )1)11 B:BB: CBFCB 00800 00y00y001 0010x- (p(pp(T$( ($(T$(1 0(Tp0x0 0x0x0(y p150-7 ftsTitleOverride Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (page 7) ftsTitle Rodents, Lagomorphs and Hyraxes (7 of 7) Rodents have proved useful in other ways, however. Several rodents, such as the cane rat in West Africa and the cavy (or guinea pig) in South America, are important food animals. Others are important fur-bearers, the chinchilla being the most valuable. The domesticated brown rat is one of the most important laboratory animals, used extensively for research and in testing products such as medicines, cosmetics and poisons. * GLIDING MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 2Y122Y- 010080 0800x 1(1)-)-0-- pyx1px 211211211 0y-10 -1--1--1-- --1--1--1- --1-- --1--1-- 1--1--1-- 1--1--1-- -1--1--1-- 1--1--1--1 --1-- 11y(p0- y1yxy-1xx p0p0(x0L :z:{: T1x0xxyx y1-p1)1 V3Y33z3z (0((0(0 (0(0(0x1 (x0xx0 V{:;22 -)(() $)()( -)-)1)1)1 p152-1 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 1: Cats, Civets, Hyenas (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The lionesses within a group (or pride') of lions are responsible for most of the hunting. Here they are bringing down a gnu. Carnivores 1. Cats, Civets, Hyenas (1 of 5) Although the name 'carnivore' is applied generally to any carnivorous, or flesh-eating, animal, the term is used specifically to describe the group of mammals belonging to the order Carnivora. Most members of this order are indeed carnivorous - they are flesh-eating predators, feeding on other vertebrates. Some are active hunters, while others are mainly scavengers. However, many carnivores eat plant matter and insects as well as flesh, and a few are even vegetarian. The order Carnivora contains around 245 species in seven families. There are believed to have been two distinct lines of evolutionary development within the order, allowing these families to be divided into two groups. The suborder Aeluroidea contains three families: cats (Felidae); civets and their relatives (Viverridae); and hyenas (Hyaenidae). The other suborder, Arctoidea, contains four families: dogs and their relatives (Canidae); bears (Ursidae); raccoons and their relatives (Procyonidae); and weasels and their relatives (Mustelidae). The natural range of living carnivores is very broad, encompassing virtually all parts of the world except Australasia, Antarctica and many oceanic islands. Carnivores are highly diverse in form, but - despite great differences in appearance - are most readily distinguished as a group by the structure of their teeth. The small, sharp incisors at the front of the jaw are suitable for nipping off flesh, while the canines are usually enlarged and dagger-like, well adapted for stabbing and tearing. Highly carnivorous species, such as cats, weasels and hyenas, have well-developed cheek teeth (carnassials) that interlock in a scissor-like action to cut through tough flesh and sinew. This adaptation is generally absent or little developed in more omnivorous species such as bears and raccoons. * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: GRASSLANDS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture Ux1P- 0U-,-0U11U 0U01U0U0U0U1) -0-0-011- -,-1-11--11-0U,10-1-- P-1Q11 ,-011U U-,U-1- -0-1--, -1-1- -0-10-- Q10Q0UU11-,)Q 1-01- --11T -0-0-- T11P1-,-11110111110- --11M -,--0 Q0-0- -0-11- T111- --P1-0-- ---T10U0Q1,10U0-10-P1- --T1,- Q---- 0-0-1,11U T-0-11111T111-11T1T--101T1- 1-0Q, -U-0-11U ----, -,U1- 0-1---0-1U -0--- -0-10- -0--- P1--1-- ----,-- U1--T T-1-0U01-,T Q0U10 1T11111110-- Q0-1,1- 0-1-,1T1--0-01-- U0111T -1111--11T --010-1-,-10-- --0-11U-, -0-01T1T- ,1-1011,U1U,--T111U011 L-,1- -L-10U1-- Q1--0 -11--1-,U 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Cats, Civets, Hyenas (2 of 5) Despite differences in size and coloring, the 37 living species of cat (family Felidae) are remarkably uniform in shape and structure, all of them essentially resembling the familiar domestic cat. All cats are predatory and their characteristic adaptations are perfectly suited to the life of a hunter. As well as specialized teeth, all species (except the cheetah) have claws that can be withdrawn into sheaths, thus keeping the claws razor- sharp and allowing the animal to stalk noiselessly on its pads. All senses, especially sight, scent and hearing, are well developed. Most cats climb trees, and feed on prey ranging from monkeys and birds to mice and insects - almost anything, in fact, that they are capable of catching. * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: GRASSLANDS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread H*H$,+ ,$HWN H*H$H$, +$H$H$ H$++2VV $N$H,V UVUVU H*H$, H*H$2 $$HUN $H$$, $$H$H$2 H$++, $NH$H$, HNNH^ $NNHW HN$H,N V,H,2+V H$H$NHTN H2+rN H$,HmN ,$HNH2 ++WH6N 3HNN, ,$H*H*H ++VV+ ],$H\N ]$HtN H$$H$H$H$H *HHxN H,VWV HNNHNNH HNH*H$H HNHN$H*H$H $NHNH p152-3 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 1: Cats, Civets, Hyenas (page 3) ftsTitle A tiger with a sambar (a species of deer). The larger cats, including lions, leopards, tigers and jaguars, often take large prey, such as sheep, deer and monkeys. The causes of man-eating, particularly in tigers, have been much discussed, but the likely reason is simply that man falls within the natural range of their prey and may on occasion be preyed on. Carnivores 1. Cats, Civets, Hyenas (3 of 5) The tiger is the biggest of the cats, with a head-and-body length sometimes in excess of 2.5 m (8 ft). Formerly ranging widely over most of southern Asia, it is now almost entirely restricted to parks and reserves, with fewer than 5000 left in the wild. Although coloration is variable, all subspecies of tiger are striped, offering excellent camouflage in their forest habitat. Nocturnal and usually solitary, tigers tend to take large prey, and can eat about 23 kg (50 lb) of meat in a single meal. Like the tiger, the lion has been exterminated from much of its former range. Within historic times, lions were found in southern Europe, across the Middle East as far east as India, and over most of Africa. They are now almost entirely confined to subsaharan Africa. Generally only slightly smaller than the tiger, male lions are larger than females and are further distinguished by the heavy mane around the neck and shoulders. Unlike most other cats, lions live together in groups called prides, which usually contain about nine individuals. They inhabit open savannah and are typically active by day. Lionesses do most of the hunting, preying mainly on mammals such as zebra, wildebeest and other antelope. The leopard has proved more adaptable than the other big cats, and is still relatively common throughout its extensive range, covering southern Asia and much of Africa. It typically grows to around 1.5 m (5 ft) excluding the tail. Most leopards are marked with characteristic rosette-shaped spots, but they can be entirely black (in which case they are known as panthers). Like most other cats, the leopard is solitary and generally nocturnal, but in Sri Lanka - where lions and tigers are absent - it is active by day. Several other cats are superficially similar to the leopard. The jaguar - the largest of the New World cats - resembles the leopard in proportions and coloration, but is of slightly heavier build and is not quite so agile. The snow leopard also has spotted markings, but its fur is thicker and softer, and it has a longer tail - almost as long as its body. It is smaller than a leopard and one of the rarest of the larger cats, being restricted to the Himalaya and the Altai Mountains of Mongolia. It is a particularly agile jumper - only matched by the New World puma (also called the cougar, or mountain lion). The cheetah, or hunting leopard, formerly of widespread distribution, is now confined to isolated populations in Asia, and to eastern and southern Africa. It is the fastest land animal, and is superbly adapted for speed, with long legs and a slender, supple body. The cheetah hunts in open plains, and relies on bursts of speed that may exceed 80 km/h (50 mph) to run down its prey, mostly gazelles. Among the smaller cats, the wildcat is one of the most widely distributed. It occurs in a wide range of habitats, from forest to semi-desert, in many parts of the Old World. Like an oversized domestic cat in appearance, the wildcat is largely solitary and nocturnal. Although an agile climber, it mainly stalks small mammals and birds on the ground. The name 'wildcat' is sometimes applied to other medium-sized cats, including the Old World caracal, the North American bobcat, and the lynx, which is widespread throughout the northern hemisphere. * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS: GRASSLANDS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture Qxyy0 xUPLy PP]0U TtlUt PP1PT y,Q(- ,t1tUP yyUx1 tUtU0x-xU P1x-x1PU(t (TPU0T1x,P tT-T0tT xy01y TyTtu xQtyPyx 1P,Tx QxTt0PP Qt1uUTQyL 1tUyTy1 xTxPU TQL,x-x Q(,-(P 1,yPlPx Ux10x PxPtP xxUxU TUPLQx 1x0Px \tPtU 0HP0tP x,t,p,LPP( P0t(u y0QT--x TUxt) --,y(- ,x,T, UtTTQPPx p,L(P x1PUxxUtL U0QPU ,PPtx$ 9],tTL ,tt1x Py1T, u-x,U TuTyT -xyUx 01t-,QUTUx P,UTp UTPLy y0P(-,,( 8,LTP TxPyTyT TQT,-0P( -yUy-t) TyUxy UQxy( U1$lTy QUxyP1,, M1T-x1T,- 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)1P-(QLy,y -xQPUxUy1 y1uyUQ uU1PU1y1yy yTu1q1U UUuxU ,P)P1)P1Q( x,xUu 1,y,uL1u P-PpUTy QUMUyUy-yy 1ty1QP1xy1 x1ux1yTUx1 yxyUxQMP Q1y-u ,-0QUyt -,-y,y P-11x1,P(, UPU,q1t)TU Ux-TQUPyPU TuLUQTUxu UPUTQyuTyy UuUtMxuLUP UPyyPUUtyU yPQMPUt -0Q1P y0y-T y0u0y UuUyUy x-yUuPqUQU uTQUu1y, ,(UPUQ yP-U1 uMx-yPU1t- x-Ut-p- P)T-Q(Q,U- t1xQUPuUyQ QTPQUt 1u1PQ 1q-y-t)1yQ x1yQ1 U--T1u-UUy UQU1u(UUPU p152-4 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 1: Cats, Civets, Hyenas (page 4) ftsTitle Meerkats, or suricates, live in groups of 10 to 15 and exhibit a highly complex social structure. Some act as nursemaids for the young, some as hunters and foragers, while others keep watch for predators. Such gregarious behavior is unusual in the civet family, most members of which are solitary. Carnivores 1. Cats, Civets, Hyenas (4 of 5) Civets and their relatives The viverrids - civets, genets, mongooses and linsangs - belong to some 75 species that together make up the civet family (Viverridae). They have a wide distribution from southern Europe across southern Asia, down through Africa and into Madagascar. Viverrids are variable in habit and appearance, but tend to have long lithe bodies, short legs, pointed snouts, and very long tails - in a few cases, even longer than the rest of the animal's body. Many civets, genets and linsangs are boldly spotted or stripped, with banded tails. Nearly all viverrids have scent glands in the anus, the secretion from which is used both in perfumery and medicine. Viverrids have adapted to a wide range of habitats, from tropical forest to savannah. Some, such as the otter civet of Southeast Asia and the Congo water civet, have adapted to spending much of their life in water. Most species are strong climbers, and the binturong of Southeast Asia is one of only two species of carnivore to have a prehensile tail (the other being the kinkajou). Most viverrids are solitary in behavior, but some species are notably gregarious. Mongooses are famous for their ability to prey on venomous snakes. Despite popular belief, they are not immune to snake venom, but rely on their agility and coarse fur as protection against cobras and other snakes. Because they are effective and voracious predators of small mammals such as rats and mice, mongooses have been introduced onto islands where these rodents have become pests. 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xt(x0t0P0,LPL,P(TPx0tLP, ,LPxPtx,px,x,t(PPL0t(T,,,L,x,xt(xt0xtxT tx,p, (xx,p,pPLPP(P (P,(0 t0P(x,p p,(tTP PPUTx,p0tTP0 ,tTP0P0t,xPxtTPTxPTxttTxTxx yxTtxTxtPxt ,xtTxtxPx0 PPpx,T,P(0t(xPpxPpTPLt(TPTPx0tPTTxT y0xPxTtTtTx0P,LTTT UxTtTxTtTxPPLxTtPxPP(P0t,TPxPx0tTtTtUxTxPx,P P0P0t,T, L,P(P,L0tTxTxTtUt,L0PTPTtTP, TPP(P PTTPxPPTPTx,t(P,L,P(T t(PPyTPTP0PP P,T,t0xPxTxPT,T,TPP0t0xPPLP,pTPTP0P,x,P(TPtTtTtPLTtUxPxPTTP,L P,TPx,T,P0PTPPL ,L,PLP,p,t0P,x,t(t0x,x tTtUxTPTt0t,LTt0x0TPx,PLx,tTt,xTtTPTxTtTy xPxTyTt xTtPxPxPtLxTPTPPp H,PTP0t0t,LTP,x,P(PPLTPTxPx p152-5 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 1: Cats, Civets, Hyenas (page 5) ftsTitle A spotted hyena. Hyenas have a reputation for scavenging, but they are also effective predators. They hunt in packs of up to 30, and in some areas kill about 80% of their food, including wildebeest and zebra. Carnivores 1. Cats, Civets, Hyenas (5 of 5) Hyenas Despite their superficial resemblance to dogs, the four species in the hyena family (Hyaenidae) are in fact more closely related to the cat and civet families. The aardwolf, found in the drier habitats of subsaharan Africa, is of lighter build than the other hyenas, and has weak jaws and minute teeth. It is also the most specialized, feeding almost exclusively on termites and other insects. The other three species - the spotted, brown and striped hyenas - are very dog-like in appearance. Their distinctive sloping gait is due to their hind legs being shorter than their forelegs. All have massive heads and powerful jaws capable of crushing bones. Whereas the brown hyena is confined to southern Africa, the spotted hyena (the largest member of the family) is found throughout subsaharan Africa, and the striped hyena occurs in dry habitats across northern Africa and into Asia as far as eastern India. The spotted hyena is particularly noted for its laughing cry - the other species are less vocal. Although noted as scavengers, the hyenas - especially the spotted hyena - are also effective predators. On the plains of the Serengeti, a quarter of all carcasses on which lions feed are animals killed by hyenas. 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T,,TTTTP x,TPx TxxT]\U \y,]1\T Tx,x0x, TPTTP 0xTxPTTT\Px0 00T0y\0x0U TT0x,xx, 1T,00T TxPTTxyTxy, TPT0xxPxUT 00x0\x0 T,,(Tx0, t0TPP0x]yxP( x,xTP,0P0P TTTTT 0P0P0 Lt,0Hy T]p,x\ \T,0x,T,L01,T yPLTTx 0,T,xTxPx0t L,PUT 0x0x,Ty t0P0xtTyx0P 0T0x9T 0xTx0 0tPx, ]xTxTT ,x0P0TTx UT,t( \xTTPxTt0T, L0P,T x,x1P, 0TTx0x0x0t T0T0x0UTT0xT L0T\x\x]xTP \xPTTT0x9 0x0T,P(T0 TTPT1 0xTT, 0x,P(QTTT 0T0T0P0 PTTTTxTTTxTx,x0T p154-1 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 2: Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Bears are typically omnivorous - they eat a wide variety of plant material and meat, depending on availability. The Alaskan brown bear shown here feeds on fish during the summer salmon migration, but at other times relies principally on plants. Carnivores 2. Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, Weasels (1 of 4) The 37 species of dogs and their relatives (family Canidae) occur in almost all habitats and - even excluding the domestic dog - in virtually all parts of the world. The dingoes of Australia are descended from domesticated dogs introduced by the Aboriginal settlers more than 10 000 years ago, while huskies are still used as sled dogs in the Arctic. Canids are typically long-legged, with a muscular torso and bushy tail. The muzzle is usually elongated, and the teeth exhibit the normal carnivorous adapta tions: the canines are long and sharp, and the car- nassials are well developed. Canid senses - particularly smell and hearing - are acute. Unlike cats, canids have blunt claws that cannot be retracted. Most canids are strictly terres trial and are excellent runners, although one species - the grey fox of the New World - often climbs trees. Canids are principally meat-eaters. Species such as the African hunting dog and the dhole (or Asiatic wild dog) are quite strictly carnivorous, while others, including the foxes, are generally more omni vorous, feeding on both animal and vegetable matter as available. Several canids, including the jackal of Asia and Africa, obtain much of their food by scavenging; the jackal is also an effective hunter, however, and in Africa is the chief predator of Thomson's gazelle. The ancestor of the domestic dog is the wolf. The grey wolf was once widespread and abundant throughout most of the northern hemisphere, and had the great est natural range of any terrestrial mam mal other than man. However, the wolf has been ruthlessly persecuted ever since man first started herding animals. Al though still found in thousands in parts of Canada, Russia and China, it is now extinct over much of its range. Wolves are gregarious animals, living and hunting in family groups, or packs. he pack a strict social hierarchy is reinforced by ritual gestures and posturing. The North American coyote resembles a small wolf, and has been far more successful at surviving human persecution. It has moved into the prairies, where it has forced out wolves, and has even managed to colonize city suburbs. The maned wolf of South America - despite its name - is in fact more fox-like in appearance. It lives mainly in savannah, where its exceptionally long legs enable it to see above tall grass. As well as the wolf, several other species of canid, such as the dingo, the African hunting dog and the dhole, are notable for their social behaviour. Cooperative hunting is particularly im portant for the more carnivorous species, especially those relying on larger prey, since success may depend on organized attack. Several fox species, on the other hand, including the red fox, are more opportunistic in their feeding and therefore have less need of cooperative activity. The red fox is usually solitary, and al though it may take poultry and sick lambs, it mostly feeds on small animals such as voles or even insects. It has proved as adaptable as the coyote, with a wide distribution throughout the north ern hemisphere, and has even taken to scavenging in urban refuse. The Arctic fox, by contrast, is confined to the Arctic regions of North America and Eurasia. This species exists in two colour forms: the white form, which turns brown in sum mer, and the less widespread blue form, which is the same bluey-grey through out the year. Although living in large dens, Arctic foxes hunt alone, with lem mings as their chief prey. They are ex tremely hardy animals: they can survive temperatures as low as -80 deg C (-112 deg F), and make some of the longest dispersal movements known for any terrestrial mammal, covering distances of around 1500 km (940 mi). At the other extreme, the fennec fox - the smallest of the foxes - has adapted to the harsh arid conditions of deserts. Its huge ears both enhance hearing and help it to lose heat. The raccoon dog of eastern Asia is similar in appearance to the New World raccoons with squat body, short legs and a black facial mask. It feeds mainly on fish, amphibians and other small mammals. Unlike all other dogs, it enters a state of semi-hibernation for over four months of the year. It does not become completely torpid, however, and emerges at intervals to feed. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HIBERNATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ,UP$uT 1U9,QT P0P,Q 101t1x v $,L t]t1P1 T11U, P0P1( 5L1UP U1TU10t 0H-1P YP9P9 TUep] 8-,50 y0P1x y,y,L y,TTQ, Ty0y0, P1,1T 0x-TT Q,LUt x-(x,x0 xP1tU T0yPT L11P- Py,yT $0xy,U $UTH] ,1P1TP0 ,x1Pp] y0Q0-P 1,P1x x-T,xP 1x,xP tU0t1 -Tx1tUPMT ,-L0P P(Ut0P P(PTPP y,PUt( xTxUx (U,1P xPLU, tTPTt0UT 0QT,xP tTxT,x, ,-TP1P0uP \y]10u Tt(TT 1Ux1U y,TPx Tx1tTP0P]T 0xPUT 1P-T, ,0,TT,) t0x0, 5x,1T QU\t0 ,yx1TPTU Tx]t]T yTyyx x1PQ0x1 Ux11x, (,-yT P1P\p x-1PUx x1x0U P1PUTt y,yxUT UxUP1 1PTyT p0Pxx1 yT,xPx TT-T,UTQT 1t0tx 1,Ly0y, PTTP, -(,M, TU,U, xUPT,, Ux]TyP 0-tTx yP(1tx (0,t, ,TP,, PUTx-P1 xUTT,x ,tt(, ,x$,$ TxtP0x Tx0x0 p154-2 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 2: Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, (page 2) ftsTitle Grizzly Bears in the Katmai National Forest in Alaska fishing at the Brooks river falls. This river falls forms a perfect fishing spot for the bears, funneling thousands of fish into a small area. Carnivores 2. Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, Weasels (2 of 4) Bears Within historic times, the eight living species of the bear family (Ursidae) occurred throughout almost the entire northern hemisphere, extending as far south as North Africa, Malaysia and the Andes of South America. Bears are now distributed patchily over their range. Despite some variation, bears are characteristically large and heavily built. They have stocky bodies, flat feet with long curved claws, and the tail is short or absent. The large head is dog-like, pointing to the common ancestry of bears and dogs. Among the bears are the largest living carnivores - the brown bears and the polar bear of the Arctic regions. An adult male polar bear weighs on average about 400 kg (880 lb), and grows to a length of 2.5 m (over 8 ft), but much heavier specimens have been reported. There are several subspecies of brown bear, including the giant North American grizzlies and the Old World brown bears, still found in remote parts of Europe. The largest members of the species are those found on Kodiak Island in Alaska, which - although usually not much exceeding the polar bear in length - may be more than 100 kg (220 lb) heavier. Most bears are omnivorous and opportunistic in their feeding, eating a wide range of food including roots, leaves, berries, nuts, insects and small mammals. The only exception is the polar bear, which is largely carnivorous, feeding mostly on seals. The sun bear (or honey bear) of Southeast Asia - although the smallest of the bears, growing to a length of about 1 m (39 in) - is nevertheless powerfully built and a good tree-climber. It spends most of the day sleeping or sunbathing in trees, only becoming active in the cool of the night. It mainly eats plants, but may also strip off bark with its sharp claws in search of honey or insects. The sloth bear of the Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka lacks upper incisors, and has lips and tongue modified for its specialized diet of ants and termites. After it has dug open an ant or termite nest with its claws, it purses its mobile lips, closes its nostrils and sucks up insects like a vacuum cleaner. The giant panda shows so many specialized anatomical modifications that it has often been classified quite separately from the bears. However, recent studies of animal body proteins indicate that bears and the panda are indeed closely related. Formerly more widespread, the panda is now confined to three small areas of mountainous bamboo forest in western China, where it feeds almost exclusively on bamboo shoots. The front paw has a special pad - the so-called sixth finger - that enables pandas to hold bamboo stems. This adaptation is also found in the red panda, but the two species are not thought to be closely related. The nutritional value of their bamboo diet is relatively poor, so pandas need to spend 10 to 12 hours a day eating. Being such specialized feeders, the panda populations suffer when a natural disaster affects bamboo. About a hundred pandas starved to death following such a disaster in the 1970s. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HIBERNATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText WTN.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "WTN" defaultPage fName ).tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Bears, Grizzly %++%* O+O+O O++O+O+*++ OU+OO O*+O++ +*++O+ O+OO++O +OO+*+O O+O++O O+*+O +O*O+O VVzVV O+O++O++O+ +O++OO+ ++%++ ++%+*++ %+*+*+N+ *+* + VVzVVO *O* + +*++O+O+ ++%++ +O+*+ +O+$++O VVzVV %++%*+%*+ ++O++ O++O++ +%+$+% *O++$++O O++O+ ++$++% O+*OO+*+O+ UVzVVU %++%+%+%+ +%+%+ ++O+O OO*+O++ ++%++% O*+OO+*+UO +N++O *O+*+N++O+ *OO+N +*+O+ O+O+O *+OO+OO+O* VVUVO O++O+O 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+*+O+ **++U *O+U*OU+ VO+UV U+*O++* O+O*O+U N+O+*$+* +*++O ++O++U UO+OOU O*+O+ +O+*+ UOU+O+U+U ++*++ U+OOU +*+O*UO+ VVUVVz OO*+* O+N+OU O+*++O++*+ O++O+ *++*+ p154-3 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 2: Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, (page 3) ftsTitle The sea otter is one of the very few mammals to make use of tools: while floating on its back, it cracks open clams and other shellfish by pounding them against a stone balanced on its chest. Carnivores 2. Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, Weasels (3 of 4) Raccoons and their relatives The raccoon family (Procyonidae) is made up of 19 species of small to medium-sized mammals. With the exception of the red panda, all the procyonids are confined to the Americas. There are six species of raccoon proper, all growing to a body length of around 50 cm (20 in). The most widespread and one of the commonest mammals in North America is the common raccoon. Like other procyonids, the raccoon is an active and inquisitive animal, and a good climber. It can also use its forepaws with extraordinary dexterity, and is very adept at fishing, flicking crayfish, small salmon and other fish from the water. It has proved highly adaptable to urban and suburban life, and it is often seen - conspicuous by its black face mask and ringed tail - rummaging among garbage cans. The kinkajou of the tropical forests of Central and northern South America spends almost its entire life in trees, where it is active at night and feeds mainly on fruit. It is also fond of honey, and - like the sun bear - is sometimes called the honey bear. It is similar in body size to the raccoon, but is not so stockily built and has a longer tail. Its tail is prehensile, adding to its great agility in climbing from branch to branch. The olingo is similar in appearance and distribution to the kinkajou, and is also an adept climber. However, its tail is bushier and banded like the raccoon's, and is not prehensile. The South American coatis are notable for their long banded tails, and their pointed, flexible snouts, with which they probe for insects and other invertebrates. Unlike most other procyonids, which tend to be solitary, female coatis live in groups of a dozen or more members, although males are solitary outside the breeding season. The red, or lesser, panda is found from the Himalaya to southern China. It is like the raccoon in size and build, with a bushy banded tail, but its coat is a lustrous rusty red. It is also known as the cat bear, from its habit of sleeping during the day, curled up on a branch with its tail over its head. It generally feeds on the ground at night, eating mainly bamboo shoots and other plant matter. * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HIBERNATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture y0-01 ~6V-1y -$-1- Q1Q2u q1z]R2_ V1^R^. u$lll V11-- T1x1]]UUU1 xy1U1U9 U,-,$ 1T11T1 Q-1121 11-1U^ :::^;6 :^: ^:^:^^^ ::^:^:^:: :^:^: ----- ^1^ > ^:b:^ >^:b:^: 2];9: :^:^: :^:2U ^:^:^ ^:::^:: ::^:: Y^9-1 ::^:::^ b;^:^:^_ 2:^::^: ^::^: ^::^: ^:^:^ ^::::^ : 1 : 2Y::^:^9 :^:^: b::^:c ::^:: ^:^:^: ^:^:^:^ V:^:^:^: V:^:^ p154-4 ftsTitleOverride Carnivores 2: Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, (page 4) ftsTitle The red panda is more closely related to the raccoons than to the giant panda. However, it shares with its more famous namesake a feature known as the 'sixth finger' - an extra pad on the forepaw that helps it to grasp plant stems. Carnivores 2. Dogs, Bears, Raccoons, Weasels (4 of 4) Weasels and their relatives The weasel family (Mustelidae) contains nearly 70 species, and includes weasels, skunks, badgers and otters. Mustelids occur on nearly all land masses except Australasia, and have adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Mustelids tend to have long supple bodies, often arched near the hindquarters. At the front, the body typically tapers into a long neck supporting a relatively small pointed head. The tail is usually long, and sometimes bushy. Mustelids are generally highly carnivorous, with well-developed carnassials. Most species are skilled hunters. The wolverine of the subarctic regions of America and Eurasia, although only around 1 m (39 in) from nose to tail, is a fearsome predator. It often preys on animals larger than itself, and has been known to drive bears and pumas off their kills. Its alternative name - the glutton - is indicative of its voracious appetite. The ratel, a polecat of subsaharan Africa and southern Asia, is another tenacious pred ator. Its favourite food, however, is honey - hence its other name, the honey badger. The least weasel, found in most temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, is the smallest living carnivore, growing to a total length (including tail) of about 20 cm (8 in). In the northern parts of its range, its fur turns white in winter. A similar colour change is undergone by the slightly larger but closely related stoat, whose white winter coat provides the ermine used for trimming robes and re galia. Another close relative, the mink, is now farmed for its luxuriant fur, while the martens (which include the sable) are also prized for their dense, soft pelts. All mustelids have well-developed anal scent glands, which are generally used for marking the boundaries of their territory. In some species - most notably the pole cats, such as the African zorilla and the ratel, and the skunks of North and Central America - the scent glands are also used as a very effective deterrent to would-be intruders. A foul-smelling liquid is ejected - with remarkable accuracy - in the form of an aerosol vapour from two glands located just inside the anus. The skunks and other mustelids that use this defensive strategy often have conspicu ous coloration, usually black and white, which is intended to warn potential at tackers to steer clear. Badgers are found throughout Eurasia and North America. Most species are broadly similar in size and appearance, generally being stockily built and having distinctive black-and-white facial markings. All badgers are efficient burrowers and are typically active by night, when they emerge from their burrows to feed on a wide diet of animal and plant material. The American badger is mostly solitary, whereas the Eurasian badger is social, living in family groups in extensive under ground burrows known as setts. The oriental stink badgers and ferret badgers both use defensive strategies similar to that of the skunks. All otter species show adaptations for life in water, typically having streamlined bodies and webbed feet, as well as broad tails to give propulsion when swimming. Most specialized of all are the sea otters - the smallest of all marine mammals - which are capable of living their entire life without ever coming on shore. Unlike most aquatic mammals, such as whales and seals, otters lack a thick layer of blubber, and are insulated from the cold water by a layer of air trapped in the fibres of their dense fur. 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T,x0x0x\ Px0Tt(tx P(x0xt,0 Lx,PH,P$ TPx0t0 ,xxTxTxTtx PPxPLTT 0t(,P Tt0tx 1tpTPt(P 0T,0T0 xtTxxTPT PxxTx,tTH PLTPP xTx,T xTTt,xPLPT Tt0tx Pp0t(t0 0,T,(TTx0T tTxTPTTPLP TxxPpT (P(x,T Tt0TP,xxTP \xxTxx 0T00x,x0Tx ,xxTPTttL ,xxt( UTT0x0xtTx ,xPTxtTxTt Lt0xxPt(0 ,,x0,0 Tx,xT TTx0x\ P(P(xTP, P1xPL ,0,x0x 00xTt P00Px xTxPt(x tTP(x ,0TP0,TP xt0P, x,x,x, 0x0x\x,Tx xTxPL PTt0t x0,T,T0x P,p,x,x0t xTx,x,L ,$,P,P 0T,\x (,x,x,x0P TxtTxTX PP,P( tPx,, ,TT,P0x ,,(\a 0txxTP( TxxTxP xPxPP Tt,xPxPPLt t(t,L x0t0xT \xPPL p156-1 ftsTitleOverride Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs, Weasels (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Common zebras fighting. Zebra stallions are often aggressive, both to predators and to other stallions. Fighting frequently arises when a stallion in possession of a harem of females strives to ward off an intruding male. Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs (1 of 5) Over 200 species of mammal - collectively known as ungulates - are distinguished from all others by their possession of hooves. Ungulates walk on their toes, with the heel raised off the ground, and these toes have evolved into hooves, formed by the broadening of the bone at the tip of the toe. A structure equivalent to claws and nails in other mammals has become modified to surround this bone, while a soft pad in the center of the underpart absorbs shock as the foot strikes the ground. With the exception of pigs and peccaries, almost all ungulates are strictly herbivorous, whether as grazers (feeding on grasses) or as browsers (feeding on foliage). Ungulates are divided into two orders, distinguished by the number of toes possessed by their member species. Much the larger order (Artiodactyla) - with nearly 200 species in nine families - is made up of the even-toed ungulates, or artiodactyls, and includes deer, cattle, pigs and others. The smaller order (Perissodactyla), with just 17 species, is made up of three families of odd-toed ungulates, or perissodactyls - horses, rhinoceroses and tapirs. Elephants are not hoofed - their feet are essentially large flattened pads - and are therefore not classified as ungulates. Horses and their relatives The eight species of horse, ass (donkey) and zebra - the equids - are all closely related, and grouped together in a single family (Equidae). All species are superbly adapted as fast and elegant runners. Equids are naturally gregarious, living together in herds. They feed almost exclusively on grasses, and the characteristic elongated jaw houses teeth adapted for their diet - the incisors for cropping grass and large cheek teeth for grinding. The wild horse - the ancestor of the domestic horse - is now extinct in the wild, although until well into historic times it ranged from Eastern Europe as far east as Mongolia. Other equids have also suffered drastic reductions in their range. The Asian wild ass, formerly abundant in the more open, arid habitats of southern Asia, is now limited to isolated populations. The African wild ass - the ancestor of the donkey - was once widespread over much of northern Africa, but is now on the brink of extinction in the wild. However, descendants of the wild horse and wild ass have been widely domesticated. South of the Sahara, four species of zebra were once widespread. The southernmost - the quagga - is now extinct, and the mountain zebra has been reduced to a few isolated populations in southwestern Africa. The common zebra (Burchell's zebra;) is still relatively wide- spread in eastern and southern Africa. Grevy's zebra - distinguished from the common zebra by its slightly larger size and its narrower, more numerous stripes - is still found in northern Kenya and Ethiopia. hiopia. * EARLY MAMMALS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * LIVESTOCK FARMING Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ]\\U\]\]\]]\ ]\]\U\T 9T9x]T1 0y8U9x 0x9x8T T90]0 18\01\9T9001 0x]]0T y0]9x T9x9\1T18\00U08 T1\18T98T \10\1 9U9y8 \U\]]]]]] 9y\]\9x9U] 1\9x1 90T10U9 1T1T11 T1T0U18U010]8] 0]]8x \1T1\0 9T1\] 0T90T 0]]T9T] 9T]]8 ]9]1]0 0U]T]Y 9T]Ty 9y\]8 \1T090\ 0]00U0T 01\01T010 8U0U8U0 8T1898U] ]\T]TU\]\U8U9T0T98T90U0810]0UT9 T9]0U8] U]\1T] \]U81T1 9\19TU\]\]]1\]]9\ ]0]\]T 89T]\\ ]0T1T ]\100]0T1\ T01\9\1T 89U8U8U8]] 18T]T\ 0]\90]80T18U 8x9U0\1\ 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:>g>^ >b :b:bCbf :c:?^>^ : > >Bb; >:>g:b;>_bb; ;b;b;>^ > ^;>:;b: >g>_> B>^ >g> ^> B:?f c:c:bC^> ;bB^?f; B_>:;bCb B ?:c: ^>C ^:b;^ >^:c: _>CbC^?f> >Cb:c >:?:? cf >^ ;bC^?:bC ^>gbc>^?: >;b;> f >:? b bc ^>?]0 >Cb:bB;b ^>U9b b;b b >gb >f b b cB cf^ bf; :cbb? b > p156-2 ftsTitleOverride Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs, Weasels (page 2) ftsTitle A black rhinoceros with young. Rhino calves (like other perissodactyls) are well developed at birth, and will accompany their mother until the next offspring is born. Except for female white rhinos and mothers of other species with young, adult rhinos are solitary. Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs (2 of 5) Rhinoceroses There are five living species of rhinoceros, or rhino - two in Africa and there in Asia. They are all massively built, with short stocky legs terminating in three hoofed toes, and a large head that has one or two horns on the top of the snout. The horns are composed of compressed hair (keratin) and are fibrous. All species are herbivorous, whether as browsers or as grazers. Rhinos are generally promiscuous, rarely forming even semi-permanent pairings. The largest species is the white rhinoceros (the animal is in fact generally greyish in color - 'white' is a corruption of an Afrikaans word referring to the rhino's wide lip). It is the largest living land mammal after the elephants, standing up to 2 m (6 1/2 ft) at the shoulder and weighing over 3.5 tons. In common with the black rhino (the other African species) and the Sumatran rhino, the white rhino has two horns. It is primarily a grazer, with distinctive square lips for cropping grass, and is less solitary than the other rhinos. The black rhino is also misleadingly named - it too is usually grey, albeit a shade darker than the white rhino. It is principally a browser, and - like all the Asian species - has a hooked upper lip tapering into a finger-like point, which is used to cull leaves and twigs from trees. Both African species were formerly widespread in open grasslands and woodlands south of the Sahara. Indiscriminate hunting, however, has reduced both species to scattered populations, mostly confined to national parks and reserves. The Sumatran rhinoceros is the smallest of the rhinos, growing to a shoulder height of up to 1.5 m (5 ft). It is also known as the hairy rhinoceros, because of its scattering of bristly hairs over its thick skin. It feeds by browsing, usually in pairs. Its original range was from eastern India in the northwest to Sumatra and Borneo in the southeast, but it is now reduced to scattered and isolated populations. The largest of the Asian species is the Indian rhinoceros. Although much the same height as the white rhino, it is far less massively built, weighing around 2 tons. It has a single horn, and its thick skin is heavily folded at the joints, giving the appearance of armor-plating. Although still an endangered species, the Indian rhino is slowly increasing in numbers, at least in some of the reserves and parks where it is protected. The Javan rhinoceros is like a small version of the Indian rhino in appearance, with similar folded skin and a single horn. This animal has the dubious distinction of being one of the world's most endangered mammals. It was once found in many parts of Southeast Asia from Vietnam southwards, but is now reduced to a single population in a reserve in Java, and a handful of isolated individuals in mainland Asia. There are fewer than 50 left in total, and given the animal's low birth rate, it is unlikely that the species can survive. One of the main reasons for the decline in rhinoceros numbers is the high value placed on their horns in Asia. Among other reputed medicinal values, the horns are mistakenly thought to have aphrodisiac qualities. With the decline in the Asian species, widespread publicity by conservationists of the high prices that horn commands may ironically have led to the rapid expansion of poaching in Africa in order to supply the illicit export market. market. * EARLY MAMMALS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 8P1t9$ P9xTx a]l9t Ux1,9 -L1,0 t9($9x ]TPxI10 ,yP,y x0t0t (P0x0 PTy,x 1tTPTy 1t0t] 0y0UP(]y 9t\U,-] ,L,8x 0lTTu0 ]]L,TTP TT8yt] t0aPL 8yTU- ,xTTl 9taT] (t(0x u1LTT ,LUta `yt1, $Tx,x1 ]y]tP Txx1t x1\]P Tl0tx TTTPTT 1,UUT \yxy0P T$t9- ,TUP>P] x,t\p $0t0xyP P$]T,U PT1PL =P(T,$y]P 9Tt,U\T ,\Q0T TT0TUP1 PUxPpTP LT$\Px9 x$1,x0t 0u(xy y9T,] 0P0x, ,y,]xUt x,x,y ,xy,T Ty\P]x 9t]](] xP]PtaPp U$ay0x UT]t0x Ux]T, ]Py\l 0yx,x T,u0x PTPtT P,xUT] TyPx0P 0x0x1 y$]-x \P]L, $Ty,9] Pxx8x, ]x9xxH9U Tt\u0 yT0t] H8$0P t,01x- P]t1x P9x(U PUt]y xPyx] xx,p9p yyPUal ,xU\y Pay$P ,xTUTt ]Lu,9p xTTTQ]x x1xy,b$ y,xPt ay0t1 $9$P1P x-t1x 0xTP0 x]t]T] P0tTPU 1,8x, t1t9P9 ,P,LU ],tTP xUxy0 ,tTLT 9TP9p PUTx1Ux ,xyxU PT-0a T1,T1y1T0P Pxlt] 9T1tU ],Tx,xx ,U1P1 )T1,-, ,x0y0 Q,-,M0 0$1,T TPTy] Ty,1U0 0U01T-1, T,U0xU,-0P 0Q,1,Q10U ]y0y0t UUU1,T Uy0]U0y]Y ,]T-, L0Ty0U1x UU]x1TU9 x10T-T 0,U,T -T1,U 1T,1P0 xU8yUy 1P-x1P,x U010,1TUxy -,y8u( ,U,U, 0Ux11x })01PU T-,,T\y1x Q0Q01 9u]10yU y-T0,y,0 ],U9P0U, 1T1T1U0y y0-x1P10TP0xUU -1,U] -UT11xU U,0y0U0y0T-T,0U,x0U0 1T1y, ,U,01T- y]u0y UTT10U1T1U,U0x1x (Q0-, 0Q0Q0T1T,1t0T, y8-x0y T10y0- p0yTQ0y0y T]Ty0y1 TU10T T1-0- yTQ0UTU, TUUTU 0-T1U, P1101, (U0-T, 1TUP0TyT,U ,-0y, 0-TUx] 1-,(1T M0,Ty0 10P1T1U0 UT10Q 1P1TU UT1Py1Tx,M0 T,1T10,T1x T,1T0yx UT-P(-0y M0P)T,y T10U, P0Py, -,Ux]y1 M,y1,QT )TUUy] ,UUTQT0-1P T-TQT,1 ,y1T,y x1110 y0TUU0,-,-U0 T1yy1yT yT1U0 U,L-0t, U-0Q0P1T TQ,TU yUUTU0 P11P1x,T x1,y0U0yUU 0UT1,0 1-0x- UT1UT1x P1T1y-UP Q01-01 y01P1T1M0 T10,y,10-T1, 1T1T,U ,),L-01P1 U0UTU, x,U,y0yU ,T,y0U0 -,U,] 0U-0y1 y10U1TUU] UPUTUTyUU 11101-1 P1-x0T, t,yTUUP1TT 0-1T,1x] T,10P] -T1-xP1 P10TUTUx T-0y1TU yPU,-xTTUTPU,1U T-T1,1T-T11x -T,T10-T-TU -U101 UUUTU110Q\-0P0 T1y1T10 ,TUT1y0]PU011T-T, U,1y0U,U0U0P0U0U,y -1TUU0PUUTUUy0y0Q0y U01U0yTUTu0xQU,Q0UT, PU0P1 TTUx1x0y0yUT1TUPTy y0,Q0y1 P1P-P0P,-0U 0U0TU YU0U,T11x PU0y1|y-TUT y0-UTUUP1T10y UTUUTP,1t,),,1x PTT0- YTU1x1TUUTUyTUUTUU1t0Q 1TQ,-,L ,T1P1 1P10UU0 UTy1x1UTT1UUUx1 TyTUT1x 0,0y0-T0 0Q(10 1TUxUxy1UTUTyUU,y 1x1yTU, U0,PTQ0Q,P ,P,1P 0P1PUx PUU1y10UTyTy0yT UT1t0UUT1T 1,0PUxU xUxy0y1Uy0y1yy\UT t1TTQ0U1P1 Q0UUxUT U01yyU UUx]yUx U]UUT1- -L10y0U UTyUT yTyTy1 UUxUx -Py0U y,-UT1 x0U,L1,,U0 y,1PUx \1y0y 1xUyUxy U1x11yU]T 0T,-,U10-0 0P0y01 ,U0yyyUTUyy P0P0P x1,y,UTU1yx UTUyx y1yUx1 1yTU0UU9,y 11T-,01P 0,Uy0 ]yyUY -L11TUQ0 T,U01P1T-P1P10yP y]xy0 Uxy0yU]Uy,U1 U,-00U,U,01x-T ]P]yUyU 0U-,U,1T,U -0U,y y,UT1u 101,PUP]yx] UyyyyyUU]yyx1 ,10P1 y1t0P TQTPTUTyy, PUTy1x T1y]y0QUx1 M0P1,- T-T1U,x0UTUT y0-x1xUxy 0y0yT -t1,- xP1-,1P1 0Q0Q1,P0QT-0x]-T Yy]xy1yT 1T,U1 0-T,10P yTU0y1QT TUUT1, YyUy1x11x1y0y0 ,1T1T y,y0,P 0P1P1T1Q0U0 y,U,TU ]yx]y]y]y0 U\y0Q0Q1 ,U,x1,UTTx1xQTU0U1t yTyTy1 yxUyUUyU T-TU01 TUP-, P1T,y01 Ty0yUxyTyyUyUy]yT UTyUTUyTUy y0T1T 0-,1P1x1x x,1TUU 0QU]yU 10y10U yUTUPY01P1, 1TTQ0y0TTQ1x1yt1P0P 1xUyTyxyU UyTy]- UTUU-P 1T-T, 1T11x 1P1UUy0 x1x91x Px1y,- M01PxUx- UxUTUUUy]u1UTyyTy0y-Ty1 1U0U, y1,yT-P1x10 -0yT1,UP 1y0P1x1 0Uy]yy y0,101T,y T,-1P1x 0UTUtU0yU y0U-U0U 1T10,10UT0y10yU U01TU yy011x1TUx1UxQ]y U-x1y0,U,U,--T1P U1T0Q,U,1TU,1x1UT1yUyUQ0U,U0x x101y,y10UQ -y0QU0P1 U,U-TUU0Q0UTQ U0U\y1t 1y10P-0PQ0T1UP1x,T1T- U,0u]T10 Ux1UT U01T1T1y0y 010U,U Q0UTU1, ,L1TPU0y0 -0-1x1 0y0TU P-1yTUQ ,-T1T1 11T1PtUP y,-10 11UUT TT1T0y P1P1P0y1P11PT11P x-0PU0P1, U0P1T1x ,x,U01T,11P0- U01y1y0]U U]UU\ ,1P1T,T10U, y1U]U1 T1x0-UU1xP1U 1111-1 -01U1U U11111UU1U9 y1UU] Uy9Uy 1U1111y1TUTUx111 U]1U1U 11111U11 11111U1U UY1y11y y1111 1y1)1 UUy1U U1y]U y1U1-1 1-1-1U 11U11U111]1 }yVy] UU1U1 -y11U]U]1111U11 Uy]yy 11U11 1y119 1111-1-11 1U1U1 U11]1 11y1U1]U :y11y9 1-1U1 UUy]1UU1 11U1U 1U1U1y1 -11U1111 21U211 1111-11 11U291 1111U1 -11UU 111U1 11U11 1]1y1 1U11U UUU151U1U111 11U11 U11-111 11111U1 1111-- U11U111 119U111 11U111 b^ ^; 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They are shy browsing animals, never found far from water. Despite their wide geographical separation, all species are structurally very similar, with four toes on the front feet and three on the hind feet. The head tapers into a flexible proboscis, or trunk, which overhangs the upper lip; it is used to scoop leaves and other vegetable matter into the mouth. As adults, the different species of tapir vary greatly in coloration, but the young of all species are very similar, with distinctive stripes and blotches. * EARLY MAMMALS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 80189 y8x01 ]901009100 99y09 1x-10 0y0x9 y00yy 010yy 101(0 0py\1 (0(1( 01xp1 0-x09x1010 ((10q8( 0(qA1 0yy10 ((01x0 (qHp) 0qx0( (8y0p (xy0- (80p100 0(010 (0x01x 0010x0 x1001 1x0y0 0(q0y8 0(1(0 0x(x( H81p( 100yp(( yp)(T(( x0H0( 0()0T x((00 )px1py( ((0x)p ((10L xpxyx (0)0x080 ]x]yx xxTxx (001( 0(1(p yy01p 810(x (()q- (xp0x ((0xx9x 0x(00 x((x(0(0 LTxyp-yU 1(0x(0( )xxyT)( x(-1p( (1yx9 )0(10 Lxq0y x(x0( L$%($H$$ 089899 yxx(08 (0x10 0p((8 zL0L0 0x010(0 Tp((Mx( 00Tpx ((LT0pq(y0 (001008 0((0qp p0(1p (l(%$ yp$() yyx(y0 81\y09 (y(y(( pqpqqy (00(( 10q0y ($((0 x090p( 0(q(0qLx 0x(0( )(xx00)L00 00xp)00( ((0(0 qx00)( (0Ux( 0x0x((y00x q0xx(0)q0 1(0y0q0p() (yxy00y(y0 101xx1 x1xx01 xx0(( (90x() p1(xy0(1 x(y1x10x81 xx1xx ((x(0( (x(0y8p x1x]yy )(L0( y-(-1x( y(0y0 Typ(p )xy()p0(0x U(x90 T(0-0y(001 y(9yx\1 100(( 08yx0x -00(xx8y09 0p0pp x1pT1 )((0) (081x 010y01 0yx(y x1xx0y y(100 yxx0y(p yx0(0 0x1((8y(( 0yx(0 ((0(0( )0)0xx (090( 0pp00 1px0xy q10(01 xyx9y (010((T1p 018q( T8y00 1xx(9 00p810(0( xx01xy ((y101()0 0q00\0 00)8x( ((00xx 10y]T xx(x0x0 (00x(90y 10)00- x01pxy0 0xy09x ((T(p x1xy\]9x (0(0y y00x1 00(x0(0(1 yx)()x0y90 y00xy 1(x00 ((y(1 xx0(x x)0x(10(0y ()T009 00-0p010 (-01x(10 (00(y0yy xyxT9xx yxyy0y 0-x0(0 T)xx0 1xx9x p018T (xy0yyx UxU0x pxq)U (xy0x ()x(0 0xx08 00x1x p0x9x-x 800Lx (p90xy 80ppx0 0L(0x00 08y0( 001x00 (T((0x 0((00 (0(0(0 x10xx x0x10 yL01x 1x0(Tx(1x0 010((xx0x 0xxyL(1(0x (01(0( (0py00 (1L(0) p00xxp ]xx8yyx 0(0(T 10((x 00)00 (0((0 px0yx L10(00((8 0L0(01 0x(qxx 0px0x L0x0xx Uy001x (00(0 (0xTx0x00x 0xx0qx0 0(x9(0 (00(0 yx0y1xx 0T0(0 x\xy8y x0(Tp 01(x(y xxy0p (00T( (x(0(0(0( ((0(L0 0y((01 0qx0p9 00(010(00( (0(0( (1x01 p0p01 1y0(U(0( T(0p0T0p(0 (-0(1 00x0(0( y010( L00((T xx)((0 p0(0(0p( 00)(L x001T(1( (00$0 p00(( p(10$ q00p00 L0((0 ((T(0p 00((0( x(y00( x0()0 (0((T1 x0x0( x((0Ty0( ((10x0( xpx10p00U0 (00((0p0( 0p0(1L 0(10x0(L0( (0x0( 0(0x)0 (00(0(0((0 0L(0L0 x0x10x (x()(00(0 ((00(0 T0)00L00p x10(0(x 01(x100( 0(00(y0 x)(0x(1 ((0L0(1(T0 (0y(() x00(10 0py00 xx(0x(0 0(1L((0(T 0L((0 x01xx1L p0((T((0L0 x0x00( 1()x01 (0(T0 yp00y( (0U0(0( xL1x0 (00(0T( (0(0(x xy0y0p1( 1p(0( x(0x(0 )(0L(0 ()00L010( 0100(10x0( (0((0(00 00xp00x 0p08(0 0p(0((x( x(yx0)01 (U((x p00)x(( p0Upx0(( 01xx0xx( 100((T(0(p x00(xy(x (xx(0(0T00 (L0(0 1x(0101x (010()(1 0x(00x y(xxy(00T0 p01((U(00 x1(x1( (10(0L 1L1yy 10((1 p(0x) x1xx((10 0(Lxx 010px0( 1ppyp 010((L (0x01pp 01(00 (0((T 0(10( H010x 0p00(\(q $(0(( 00y0p( 10((10T(0 (01(0y )(x0p0 ((0(00- 010(0 )(0p( q(0x0( 10(L81 ((0(L01 T00-0 (1T(00x 00x0( 0(0(T 01(x(1 00100 01L)x (0Txp0 01(10 (1(00 (10(00(( 10x00(10(y 00(001(00 (0(() p((-l p156-4 ftsTitleOverride Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs, Weasels (page 4) ftsTitle Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs (4 of 5) Tapirs The Malaysian tapir is larger than the other species, growing to a head-and-body length of up to 2.5 m (8 1/4 ft). Solitary and nocturnal, it occurs mainly in swampy forests from Thailand and Burma south to Sumatra. Its striking black-and-white coloration provides perfect camouflage in the moonlit forests. The Brazilian tapiris uniformly brown and further distinguished by a short erect mane on the back of the neck. The mountain tapir is the most thickly furred, the other species having short bristly fur. * EARLY MAMMALS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * LIVESTOCK FARMING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread ,++,+ +,P,+ +-,W,,W+,+ +,+,++-+, +,,2,, Q+4-WWPQ ,-Wu,-3 PQW|] |zP,3 PW^W-VX V-,+, ,,+,P -,,+,+,, ,Q{,P, +,PP,P Q,2,U- P,-+, ,WP3V,Q,3W ,QP3Q-P ,-2-,- ,-,,+ PX-V-VW,WW ,{P|WQ ]|XX{|{ {WXXV W|2RV- 3W,Q,QW PV3WQW, OQWPWW VWV-2VW {|{W&, ,,-2-,, VQ ,W,V. 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Both Asian and African elephants are highly social, living in family groups led by an old cow. An injured member of the herd will be shielded by its comrades and assisted in moving to a place of safety, while an orphaned calf will be fostered by another cow. Elephants and Perissodactyls: Horses, Rhinos, Tapirs (5 of 5) Elephants Within the geologically recent past, giant mastodons and mammoths - close relatives of the elephants - occurred in the New World and across northern Eurasia. Today, the order Proboscidea is represented by just two species - the Asian elephant of India and Southeast Asia and the African elephant of subsaharan Africa. Two races or subspecies of the latter are recognized - the bush elephant and the smaller forest elephant. Both African and Asian species are gregarious, living in herds in habitats from forest to savannah. Elephants are entirely vegetarian, and - despite their massive bulk - are surprisingly graceful and swift on their feet. The gestation period of elephants is very long - between 20 and 22 months, after which usually a single calf is born. The African elephant is the largest living land animal: a large male may stand over 3.5 m (11 1/2 ft) at the shoulder, and weigh around 7 tons. The Asian elephant is smaller, with a shoulder height of 3 m (10 ft) and weighing up to 6 tons. As well as by size, the African elephant is distinguished by its larger ears, sparser hair and less domed head. The female Asian elephant usually lacks tusks, and the male's tusks are generally much smaller than those of the African species. This size difference may be the result of evolution - the Asian elephant has been hunted for ivory for several thousand years (and hence only small-tusked strains have survived), whereas the African species has only been hunted with any intensity for just over two centuries. The most obvious feature of all elephants is the long, flexible, muscular trunk. The trunk is formed by an enormous elongation of the nose and upper lip. The nostrils are at the tip, and the sensitive grasping lip can be used to pluck foliage or to pick up objects as small as a nut. As well as providing an efficient means of gathering food, the trunk is also used for drinking and smelling, and for producing the loud trumpeting sounds used in communication and courtship. An elephant's tusks are in fact highly modified teeth - continuously growing upper incisors. The largest tusks measure around 3.5 m (11 1/2 ft) and pairs can weigh over 110 kg (240 lb) - with record pairs weighing nearly twice this. However, because of relentless hunting, huge 'tuskers' are now rare, and it is unusual to see an elephant with tusks weighing much more than 30 kg (66 lb). Elephants' cheek teeth are also unusual in that they do not succeed one another vertically like those of most other mammals, but move successively from the rear, pushing out the foremost tooth as it becomes worn and useless. Asian elephants have been tamed (although not strictly domesticated, since they are not normally captive-bred but captured and then tamed). They are used in forestry for moving timber, and also as ceremonial beasts, when they are often elaborately decorated. The African elephant can also be tamed - as the Carthaginian general Hanibal proved over 2000 years ago. * EARLY MAMMALS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture x-tU, 1x-tT 9t0x1 0L,yPxUP\ ,xH]t x1PPa xy$0y, TU$UP ,1PM1 0P,),, )u,x- ,,-P(- )TPx,M, PT,M- ,yUPq 1P)QT ,y-p1-,U,1 ,y,xQ TPy,x xTUxx PUUtu(x }(PU,M] Ux0TUx y,M,yTQ Uxx]x1 0xyTxTy P,U,M- ,p-P)P $,UTU MxQ1l yTy,1 L,,p-x, tQT,q %lP$P (Q-(P 0t]yTx LtxQLU 10TQTT 1QTQT Txx-t1 T,MTP8 ,MT-P PTxP0xUyT,ytTy ,,M,-(y, t)P-p 1,P(-$] y,UPxyPy tUtp,P ,1PLy,t( 0u,u,x, MPU,, }UP)1t P1P(UQ0 tUxP( y0yUP P(-P, PT-t( y,-x,U PMP-0Q q1P,M yPxQpyTP yTyTyUxU L,M,U ,-(P-T xQTy-1 0y0,P (,M0u) t,1p-TPM,y, ytUTQUPy,q (P)PQ (Q0,P Lx-P1-x PTUtx -x-,M, TxxUTxT] UTPQ\y\ Qt(y-(U, xyxUxy]y UyxUx Pu1,yT uLQ,Q y,U,1 ),-,MTU,tUPTU0x TTUUxU ]y\y0T Pytp, -(y,U P)U,x-PT M,QPU,Ly ,PyP) tu,(PQp TUPU,(Q1H y,TQx TyPy, P-P(Q UTUP-t1T y,yP) PUPMx-T, yUP(-P( M,Q,t) )Ux,P- ,1,P) yPUx0Q(- t,xyPyTU ,QUtUU,u(P M,-L,Py- ,tMP(-L, y,-x,1P up-,TU0, ,-,Q,-L (y1x,-,P UTPMTy, Q0y,( UP(1P) -x,-( 1PL,Ly P),1P Q(T,1, LQP-xQ T-tyt) Q-,y,Q,y,yt Q,(U,Q( 0U,y, x,M,y P-L-xPy-L,UT LQP(P PMPUxU UP-LUUTyt P-PU,Ty1x-,TUP)x ,1P)-PUQ, PTPUP uTuyU y,x,M0P -,(Q( xQTPpu0u(- (P0u, P,U,,L ,UT,yT- ,P(T,x ,U,L,y,0PUP1Q(U P-,yQUTtyxUy -0U,, P),U,Q,( -Hy-t1- ,P1xu p-0P-PQU TUt(P)P y,Ux,UU,0uT y,yPUUxU -,q0PUtUP )T,-0U -TPPpUU$U- yTP1-x t1t0x- Q0u0P PTP1xUx1y0yUPUxu (U,y,-- U,MP, y,xy- ,xUy,y0 P,y1PPyT ,,y-t( ,y,yUP x-Q(,Py,-U Tyt1,x Ut)x-x P)Q,,)x -U-x- ,T,L, t-TQL1-Pt1u tu0t]x PP$U,M,LU 1PUy, ,L--,- ,yTPQx-1 (,LU,- xyTy-,,Q,(yx1 y$]t0u0P yP-,u1 LUPUu1 t,Q0y,T ,y,UP P),(U, U,(U,y0PU L,yx-P-xUPTy Q,q,-TPUP q0,U,UQx QTUT,LT UUuTQ) ,L1T-q QT,)U,1P- y0uTPU ,-P0,)P ,y101 TU,PyP u0tUx 0U4yy1y,L 0tqx1t ,M,u,P,q -01t( 1P),L p158-1 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 1: Pigs, Peccaries, Hippos, Camels (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Wart hogs are more active in the daytime than most pigs, and are generally found in more open habitats. At night they shelter in burrows - from which they are often dug out by lions. Artiodactyls 1. Pigs, Peccaries, Hippos, Camels (1 of 3) The artiodactyls, or even-toed ungulates, comprise the nine families of pigs, peccaries, hippos, camels, deer, chevrotains, giraffes, bovids and the pronghorn. It is the larger and more diverse of the two orders of ungulates, or hoofed mammals. There are nearly 200 species, and they are native to all the larger land masses except Australasia and most oceanic islands. The foot of most artiodactyls has four toes, but only the middle two are normally hoofed and bear the weight of the animal. The other two (the dew claws) are small, and do not touch the ground. Many species are of considerable economic importance, either as game animals or domestic livestock. Pigs and peccaries are omnivorous, but all other species of artiodactyl are herbivorous, and have teeth specialized for cutting and grinding plant material. With the exception of pigs, peccaries and hippos, all artiodactyls are ruminants. The eight species of pig form a single family (Suidae) that has a widespread distribution throughout the Old World. Pigs characteristically have short legs and heavy bodies, and the long pointed head terminates in a large flexible snout. The body of most wild pigs is covered in coarse bristly hair, which in males (boars) sometimes forms a crest along the spine. The snout is sensitive but resilient. It is strengthened at the end with a cartilaginous disk, and is further reinforced by a bone not found in most other mammals. The upper incisors and canines often form sharp tusks, the edges being sharpened by contact with the teeth in the lower jaw. In males the tusks grow continuously throughout the animal's life and are often large, and can be extremely dangerous weapons. All pigs are primarily forest and woodland species, and are largely nocturnal. They eat much vegetable matter, but will feed on anything edible, including carrion. In addition to grazing and browsing, they grub in forest litter using their snouts and tusks in search of insect larvae, worms and other invertebrates. Most pigs live in small family groups, or 'sounders', of 4 to 6 members, although some species, such as the wart hog and the wild boar, are often found in much larger sounders. Pigs are notable breeders. Males produce large amounts of semen, and a female may have two or more litters a year. After a gestation of 3 to 5 months, they generally have litters of up to 6 or 8. The domestic pig and the feral boar normally have larger litters - up to 12 is common. Although the range of several pig species has contracted, the wild boar of Eurasia - in the guise of its descendant, the domestic pig has been spread by human agency to many parts of America, Australasia and elsewhere. Because of centuries of careful selective breeding, the domestic pig has changed strikingly from its wild ancestor, the latter being generally smaller and lighter, with a straight tail, a longer snout and a coat of thick bristles. On the continent of Europe, the wild boar is still widespread and even manages to survive in countries as densely populated as the Netherlands. It was originally found in Britain too, but became extinct in the 17th century. The boar also occurs in North Africa, but south of the Sahara it is replaced by three other species. The African bush pig, or red river hog, occurs both on the African mainland and on Madagascar and the Comoros, where it was possibly introduced. The wart hog - so called because of the wart-like outgrowths on its face - is still abundant in many areas, and is a familiar sight in East Africa's national parks. Despite being the largest of the African pigs, the giant forest hog was one of the last really large mammals to become known to science - it was not described until 1904. The smallest pig is the pygmy hog from the foothills of the Himalaya, which is only around 50 cm (20 in) long. Despite attempts to breed it in captivity, the species is one of the most endangered mammals in the world. Another threatened species - although not to the extent of the pygmy hog - is the babirusa of Sulawesi (Celebes) in Indonesia. The upper tusks of the babirusa grow upwards through the top of the muzzle before curving down, while the lower ones project upwards out of the mouth. These tusks cannot be used as weapons, and their precise function is unclear. 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They can close their ears and nostrils, and stay submerged for up to half an hour. They often swim out to sea and return up another river, and can even walk on the bottom of rivers and lakes. Artiodactyls 1. Pigs, Peccaries, Hippos, Camels (2 of 3) Peccaries The three species of peccary (Tayassuidae family) are found in Central and South America. They are essentially modified pigs, and are broadly similar to pigs both in appearance and in habits. They are slightly smaller than pigs, however, and are further distinguished by the tusks, which curve downwards rather than upwards, and by a prominent scent gland on the back. Their sounders tend to be large, sometimes numbering up to a hundred. All the members of a sounder turn collectively on any predator - the animal's main method of defense. The collared and white-lipped peccaries are the only artiodactyls to have three toes on the hind feet and four on the front feet. The Chacoan peccary was only known from fossil remains until the early 1970s, when specimens were found alive in the Gran Chaco of Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina. Hippopotamuses The two species of the hippopotamus family (Hippopotamidae) are found only in Africa. The common hippopotamus, or hippo, originally occurred throughout most of Africa, including the delta of the River Nile, but within historic times its range has contracted considerably, through a combination of changes in habitat and overhunting. Despite this overall decline, hippos can still be found in dense concentrations - densities of nearly 20 per km2 (50 per sq mi) have been recorded along a stretch of the Nile in Uganda. The common hippopotamus is one of the largest terrestrial mammals - only surpassed in weight by the elephants. Hippos can weigh up to 4.5 tons, and stand 1.5 m (5 ft) at the shoulder. They are amphibious, spending most of the day sleeping and resting in water. They emerge at night to graze, mostly on grasses, which they crop with the front teeth and lips. Although strictly herbivorous, hippos are not ruminants. When lying in water, hippos can submerge almost the entire body, with only their nostrils, eyes and ears - all of which are set on top of the huge bulbous head - appearing above the surface. The belief that hippos 'sweat blood' derives from the fact that they have glands in the skin that exude droplets of an oily fluid that appear red. This secretion in fact gives protection to the hippo's virtually hairless skin. The pygmy hippopotamus is confined to the forests of West Africa. Although similar in appearance, it is much smaller than its giant relative, standing about 85 cm (2 3/4 ft) at the shoulder and weighing around 225 kg (500 lb). It is less aquatic than the common hippo, not gregarious, and has probably always been rare. 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z9:^2:^ _9V::^:: 2:^2:^2 2V::^ ^:2^^: 2^2:::V ::^2:^ :^2:: ::^ZV ]:V929 6:9U: :^29^ ^:^:^ :Z:^:^^: ^2:^2: ^2^2: ::^2^ 2^2^:V ^2:2:^: 2:V^^ ::]:^:^: V:::^: ^9V::^:V^: 2:V:2 ^:^^^ :V:V: 2:^2^:2]2V:V: ::^2^ ::2^2^:: ^:2^::: :V:^: V:V:]: :2^:V: :^::1^ ^:2:V::^:V V::2^: :^::z Z2:^2 :V:^2: 2:^:^:^2 ^2:V: ^2:^:V :V::V:^ ^2:^: 2^:^2 9_:^: :V::V: 2:^Z^ ::U:^ 2^2^9 ::^::^ 2^:^2^9 ^::V:^:2^: ^:V:V:^ ^2^:: 2:^:^ :^2^: :^2::^ 2^:^: :^:]; ^::2:^ ^:^:^: V:::^ ^2^2:2:^Z^ V:^29:V: ]::::^ :2^2^:^ 2^::^: :::::V V:9^: ::^2::^^^ ::^:: :^^^:^ _]Z^^^^ :^^Z: ^^Z^:: ^^^^: :]^^^ :^^:^: ^:^Z: ^:::^ ^Y:^: ^^^2^ p158-3 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 1: Pigs, Peccaries, Hippos, Camels (page 3) ftsTitle The dromedaries, or one-humped camels, of the Middle East and North Africa have been domesticated and used as beasts of burden for several thousand years, and no longer survive in the wild. They have been introduced into several countries, including Australia, where a large feral population exists. Artiodactyls 1. Pigs, Peccaries, Hippos, Camels (3 of 3) Camels Formerly more widespread, the camel family (Camelidae) is today represented by just six species - two species of camel in the Old World, and four related species confined to South America. All camelids ruminate, but are peculiar among ruminants in that the digestive glands are located in sacs in the lining of the rumen. All species show adaptations for life in arid or semi-arid plains, grasslands and deserts. The Old World camels are among the largest of the artiodactyls. The two-humped Bactrian camel grows to over 2 m (7 ft) at the shoulder, while the one-humped dromedary is usually slightly taller, at 2.4 m (8 ft). The dromedary is native to North Africa and the Middle East, and only survives in its domesticated form. The Bactrian camel has also been domesticated and is now endangered in the wild. It is found only in the remote deserts of Mongolia and China. Both camel species are superbly adapted to life in desert conditions. Their feet (like those of other camelids) have two toes joined by a web of skin that can be splayed, so preventing the animal from sinking into soft sand. The eyes are protected from sand by heavy lashes, while the nostrils can be closed to exclude sand. The fatty humps act as food stores in case of shortage. The camel's well-known ability to go for long periods without drinking - for over a week while traveling long distances - is due to a number of adaptations designed to conserve water. The number of sweat glands is heavily reduced, and camels do not start to sweat until the temperature reaches 40 degC (104 degF); heat accumulated in the body during the day is dissipated in the cool of the night. Camels can survive a water loss of about 40% of their body weight without suffering damage, and the water content of the urine is minimized by the kidneys. Following a prolonged period without water, camels have been known to drink over 100 liters (22 imperial gallons / 26 US gallons) in a matter of minutes. Four species of camelid are found in South America: the vicuna, the guanaco, and the guanaco's two domesticated relatives, the llama and the alpaca. All four species are similar in size, growing to a body length of around 1.5 m (5 ft). They are slender-legged animals, with a long neck supporting a head that resembles that of the Old World camels, except that the ears are larger. Grasses form the basis of their diet, and in all species the hair is soft and woolly. Guanacos are territorial and live in small herds (or troops) of up to 10 females and a single male. They are found in arid plains and mountains, where they move with speed and agility over the rugged terrain. The vicuna is also gregarious, but is confined to mountainous terrain. The alpaca is bred primarily for its wool, while the llama is used as a beast of burden. Llamas are famous for their spitting - a protective device performed by blowing out saliva and nasal mucus through the mouth. Since alpacas and llamas have been domesticated for around 4500 years, their precise relationship with the guanaco is uncertain. 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62222V22 Y2:U2^ 2V:V2 V2]2V 2V:21 Y2^2Y ^122Y :222V Y2V22V V21V12 22U2U 1212U 1V2U2 2U2U2 p160-1 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 2: Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Reindeer stags and males of most other deer species establish a territory during the breeding season (or rut), and use their antlers to ward off rival males. Occasionally the antlers may get locked together - in which case the animals concerned will starve to death. Artiodactyls 2. Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (1 of 5) The thirty-eight species of the deer family (Cervidae) are widespread throughout the northern hemisphere and in South America. They have adapted to a broad range of habitat, from tropical forest to arctic tundra. Typically, deer are delicately built, with long legs terminating in cloven (split) hooves, and all are swift and elegant runners. Their senses are also acute - vital in species otherwise so vulnerable to predators. Most species are fairly uniform in size, growing to a body length of 1 to 1.5 m (40 to 60 in) - although the largest species, the elk (known as the moose in North America), can exceed 2.5 m (8 1/4 ft) in length. All species of deer are ruminants. They are mainly browsers - feeding on leaves - but red deer also graze, and deer have generally adapted to grazing on grass and other vegetable matter in areas where forests have been cleared. The characteristic feature of deer - branching antlers - are not found in any other family of animals. In most species, antlers are carried by males alone - only in the case of the reindeer(caribou) of the Arctic do both sexes possess them. The musk deer of Asia and the Chinese water deer are the only species lacking antlers, although the males of both species have short tusks formed from elongated upper canines. Antlers consist of bone and grow yearly from knobs on the skull. While growing, they are covered in soft velvety fur, but once fully grown, the blood supply is cut off, and the fur peels off, leaving only the hard bony core. Each successive set of antlers is larger and more branched than the one before, until a deer reaches maturity, after which the antlers may decline. Although the sexes typically live in separate herds for the rest of the year, during the breeding season, or rut, the males of many deer species become territorial and defend harems of females. Once the rut is over, the antlers are shed, to be grown anew the following year. Most deer have only one or two young, which are well developed and often able to follow their mother within hours of birth. Unlike adults, which tend to be drab brown, the young are frequently heavily spotted. Chevrotains The four species of chevrotain, or mouse deer - although placed in a separate family (Tragulidae) - are fairly closely related to deer. They are like tiny deer in appearance, growing to between 20 and 35 cm (8 and 14 in) at the shoulder. Generally found near water in the tropical forests and swamps of Africa and Asia, chevrotains graze and browse at night on the forest undergrowth. They lack horns or antlers, but in males the upper canines have developed into tusks. * UNGULATE CLASSIFICATION * ARTIODACTYLS 1 * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture x-tLT UTTP0y T-PTP 1y]y,xTt UxtPx t1T-x Q,TUt ,pTtt0xtL ttU0- Txtx1QT Px]qT -0tPtl Tt1T1P t,xUxUxyTt xPxxPpx yUPTU (tTUTTtTtP puLtu1 TxxyTxUy Tt(t]t tLxPLxt |UPy0 1xTUTP(xU p9x0x ),TTU0xUx pxtTu ,TTtt ,Ux-L 9-LPtP LxtTt(,t PpPtL Ptx,x t,ytL p,yxU Tt,x, LtytLtP ,PPpPt 10xQP9 TtTtPpxU PtxUPLt PPLtp ,LUy0t tLPLy Pt,PpTt, tUxxTx 0]y$tu t(xTPP xtLxPp, UMPyUxPLP Lxy0Ut0 TxUPTU Qt,L,0Q U,TPLP ,,PtLP( $,p,PPyP ,tPpP U,uLy LTPlt TttxUQ, QLPpt(tPp, 1tTQ(ty TxyTQT tPt,p tPpt, HPLHx TPPx] 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P0P0,,p0tP TTx,x0T0 xxTxxTxyx0 x1xTTPTT TxyxTyTx1P 0T-00x,x ,xxTtxT TxtxTxx TPTT0T,T0x ,0P0PTT x,xxTxxTP x,x,x0txxT TxTxTTPTT, 0,T00T, ,x0t00T00 ,,x,TTP(P0 x,PLPx,x, P,x00t(0P, t(T,0 PTTx,x ,P(T,0T,PT ,x0x,0PT0T ,0P0x, PTTt,x0xPU TxTyTx 0tTPTtTP tTPTP,L,TP t(tTt TxTxT xTxTxTx0xT xTxTxUxTx0 xTxTxT xTxTxT UTx0x1t0T1 P0P0U,TUPT xTxTxTxTxP TxPxPx,T ,t(xTx,T0U 0P0TTUTPTx Tx0xTx\x0x Tx0x,xTx xTxTxTx0P0 y0x0T Tx,x,x0PTP TP0T,x,T, (T,T0 T0PTPPxPt( tTtPxPP0t0 x,P0P0P,L0 P0TPT,x,x, xPTPTPT,x, x,P0P,T t0P0T,x0t, T,T0T,T0x0 p160-2 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 2: Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (page 2) ftsTitle The okapi, restricted to the dense tropical forests of Zaire, is the giraffe's only living relative. More solitary than its gregarious relative, the okapi is likewise a browser, using its long tongue to gather foliage. The tongue is indeed so long that it can be used to clean the animal's eyes. Such is the okapi's unobtrusive life style that - despite being the size of a large zebra - it remained unknown to science until 1901. Artiodactyls 2. Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (2 of 5) The giraffe family The giraffe family (Giraffidae) consists of only two living species - the elusive okapi of the tropical forests of Zaire and the giraffe. Male okapis and giraffes of both sexes have two or three distinctive skin-covered horns, which are formed from bony outgrowths and are never shed. Both species are ruminants. Formerly found in open habitats throughout Africa, the giraffe is now restricted to subsaharan Africa, but is still relatively abundant in eastern and southern Africa. The giraffe's characteristic pattern of brown blotches is highly variable, and a number of distinct geographical races are recognized. With its long slender legs and enormously elongated neck, the giraffe is by far the tallest land animal. Male giraffes grow to a height of about 5.5 m (18 ft) - about a meter more than females. Although the giraffe's neck has only seven vertebrae - the same as most other mammals - the bones are greatly elongated and the joints are of the ball-and-socket kind, giving extra flexibility. In order to allow blood to ascend to the head and to prevent a sudden surge of blood when the animal bends down to drink, there is a series of valves within the neck to regulate the blood supply. When giraffes walk or run, the neck moves rhythmically backwards and forwards, thus shifting the center of gravity and maintaining balance. Giraffes have long tongues - nearly 45 cm(18 in) in length - enabling them to browse on the tops of bushes and trees. They usually remain standing even when sleeping. * UNGULATE CLASSIFICATION * ARTIODACTYLS 1 * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Okapi 3e_Ae^ **++* 9+4;] 3+34^ ,243$ ,+243$ 4;^^23* 433W3 4434] ^^3W2 :3^W^ 3_3W93 d44332 _45432 d^4^3,* ,2:_3 VW3^: e^:3X4W W9WX^ W,3W] ^X^^44^ _eeW^ ^-33^ ^^3^44 49X3^ ^W33_4 3WX:3X -33 44^__ ^^d3, ^44^^_ 443^_^_ e-3 3 d^3,V ^343/ 4;_^ed4: W^]2R d^42++ ^:2,+ 2,+VI ]^^+V 4^_3; 3 X_X -4X_4, 4Y__Y 4X5^Y5 44XY5. X..5X^X4 ,_X_5 XX4.^YX X_55, .X54. ,Y^Y55, 44XY4 XX_X;Yd .54Y5 P5^Y54__ %54YX5 5.XX45W_ 3YXY54Y55 54XYX5 ..XX4.R W_4Y5X5.Y .5XYX5 -XY|__55Y5 .5YXY ,5.4YXX.X} _YX54 Y.5^XX X^__.4 _5YY5 .-YXY .4X^XX X WY^}^_^Y5 _5-X__^ YXX4..Y, YY44 ,4XX_4/ ,X.XY X^5X/ -4XXY -X.YX5 -54X^_X.4 -X4YY4W_X 5 .XXYXX4. ,XXY__ 4.4.4X0 W5.-}4 _4X40 ^_XY5 -4.Y_Y XY__X30 X_.-4Y XY_.-_44Y -}|_Y X_|_4.XXY. -X|_Y X4..Y.X . XY. Y4X^. ,_5'. XY.Y4 X5X4X Y_YX5RX 454.YX Y.45XY Y5..X X_XY}_ X545.YY5.X .}_^X 5X5Y4.X45X p160-3 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 2: Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (page 3) ftsTitle Skull of a bison Artiodactyls 2. Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (3 of 5) Bovids The bovid family (Bovidae) is a highly diverse group containing 128 species of antelope, cattle, sheep and various related species. The family includes some of man's most important domestic animals. Bovids are most numerous and diverse in Africa, but they are well represented in most parts of Eurasia and North America, and also occur on some Arctic and Southeast Asian islands. Although bovids have adapted to a wide range of other habitats, the majority of species favor open grassland, scrub or desert. Diversity in habitat is matched by great diversity in size and form: at one extreme is the tiny royal (or pygmy) antelope of West Africa, standing a mere 25 cm (10 in) at the shoulder; at the other, the massively built bisons of North America and Europe, growing to a shoulder height of 2.2 m (7 1/4 ft). Despite differences in size and appearance, bovids are united by the possession of certain common features. All species are ruminants and almost exclusively herbivorous. Typically their teeth are highly modified for browsing and grazing: grass or foliage is cropped with the upper lip and lower incisors (the upper incisors are missing), and then ground down by the large check teeth. As well as having the cloven hoof common to other artiodactyls, the males of all bovid species and the females of most carry horns. Bovid horns have bony cores covered in a sheath of horny material that is constantly renewed from within; they are unbranched and never shed. They vary in shape from the long corkscrew spirals of the greater kudu of Africa to the ramshorn spirals of the American bighorn. The horns of a large Indian buffalo may measure around 4 m (13 ft) from tip to tip along the outer curve, while the various gazelles have horns with a wide variety of elegant curves. The lines of development within the bovid family are not clearly understood, but five groups or subfamilies may be distinguished. The subfamily Bovinae comprises most of the larger bovids, including the African bongo and nilgai, elands, bison and cattle, all of which (unlike most other bovids) are non-territorial. The spiral-horned elands of Africa range from the giant eland - the largest of all antelopes, sometimes weighing over 900 kg (1985 lb) - to the tiny bushbuck, about a tenth of the weight of its massive relative. The ancestors of the various species of domestic cattle - banteng, gaur (or Indian bison), yak and water buffalo - are generally rare and endangered in the wild, while the aurochs (the ancestor of the domestic cattle of Europe) is extinct. * UNGULATE CLASSIFICATION * ARTIODACTYLS 1 * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread p160-4 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 2: Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (page 4) ftsTitle Gemsbok and other species of oryx have adapted well to arid conditions. They can survive for very long periods without drinking, relying on dew and moisture from roots and bulbs. Like most other antelopes, oryxes are gregarious, and may gather in large herds, particularly after the rains. Artiodactyls 2. Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (4 of 5) The term 'antelope' does not designate a precise zoological grouping - the name is used somewhat loosely to describe a number of bovids that have followed different lines of development. Antelopesare typically long-legged, fast-running species, often with long horns that may be laid along the back when the animal is in full flight. The majority of antelopes belong to two subfamilies: Hippotraginae, which includes the oryxes and the addax, wildebeest (or gnus), roan antelopes and kobs; and Antilopinae, which generally contains slighter and more graceful animals such as gazelles, the impala and the springbok. Antelopes are mainly grassland species, but many have adapted to flooded grasslands: pukus, waterbucks and lechwes are all good swimmers, usually feeding belly-deep in water, while the sitatunga has long splayed hooves that enable it to move freely over swampy ground. Some species of antelope, such as the addax and the oryxes, can survive for very long periods without drinking. The subfamily Caprinae includes sheep and goats, together with various relatives such as gorals, serows, takins and tahrs. Most are woolly or have long hair. Several species, such as wild goats, chamois and ibex, are agile cliff- and mountain-dwellers. Tolerance of extreme conditions is particularly marked in this group: barbary and bighorn sheep have adapted to arid deserts, while Rocky Mountain sheep survive high up in mountains and musk ox in arctic tundra. The duikers of Africa (subfamily Cephalophinae) are generally small and solitary, often living in thick forest. Although mainly feeding on grass and leaves, some duikers - unlike most other bovids - are believed to eat insects and carrion, and even to kill small animals. The pronghorn The pronghorn of North America is the sole survivor of a New World family of herbivorous ruminants (Antilocapridae), similar in habits and appearance to the Old World antelopes. Males and most females carry horns that consist of a bony core covered with a horny sheath, rather like branched cattle horns, but - unlike the horns of cattle - the sheath is shed after each breeding season. Although greatly reduced in numbers since the advent of European settlers and the subsequent enclosure of grasslands, the pronghorn is still found in considerable numbers throughout North America from Washington State to Mexico. When alarmed by the approach of wolves or other predators, hairs on the pronghorn's rump stand erect, so emphasizing the animal's white rump-patch. At this signal, the whole herd gallops off at speeds of over 64 km/h (40 mph). * UNGULATE CLASSIFICATION * ARTIODACTYLS 1 * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture yPt,Pt TtTl,tP $TtL$,$x0 ]t0tHPx0 TP(t0 xtxTt $$xTt tPtxP 0y\TP tPxt( ,ttlt txPxP Pp,tU t,p$x TtxPy (tPtT PxllTPP ttH,tPL pHt(, TTH9P(x PLUx1 UxxTPPt0 PPxxP ,pPpT xxH0$y yPTP( T$T]Pt TPlt,P ,tLtt(tx TxTtH PPptH LtPxt( P$tPxt(TT P(tH$PU P(PPt x$P$TtT ,Pp0tL ,t(PH$ ,p,P( tTt(t t(,yT tUTxU PPUxP t0x\$t PLPP( tp\tTP uPt(tx ,xtTHT T1xTy lH$$Ttx t$TlxP,$,pt,pPt Ql$P$P,LTP,py ,tPxUxH TxPt$$ Tx0$t( 1xPxy 1xt(t PtLT- pPP(PT t]t,y yTuTx $$P(P tPpt0xTPt H,0tLtt Pp,tPpxtL xPt,LPP PPLTP(P xPxt$ 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$P(tTP$ $PLxH,P( $,L$T$ PLx,(,PLP tP$(P $Pt,t( x,t]H,$ 0P($,(P(,PTP PxPL$,P P(P,, ,$,PPL, P(t,L, ,LQ,$, $PtPL$PT tUtUP ,PLTt,p,P$, (t,p, $,LPL, $,(Pp,PLP $,$,,L ,x,$t UP,$,yTt$ $P($P PP(t,p ,,P$0, L,x,t$ ,t(,p (t(P$,$ $1t0$PP(tx LH,tLP TPP,L,HPP p0PTU 1t0(,- |Px$,L ,xTP$,$ xPp,tPT,P LPp,t(t p,t(P,(t$ $,PLyTy, tx,L$ PPP(t, t,$t( ,LPP,pP$ $,$,, t0H,tLP$ ,L,t$,x x,tLtTtPx$ P,pTP $x,y, p160-5 ftsTitleOverride Artiodactyls 2: Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (page 5) ftsTitle Artiodactyls 2. Deer, Giraffes, Bovids, etc. (5 of 5) Apart from pigs, peccaries and hippopotamuses, all artiodactyls are ruminants : they ruminate, or 'chew the cud', as an important part of their digestive process. For this purpose, camels have a three-chambered stomach and show certain exceptional features, but other ruminants have a specialized stomach with four chambers. While grazing, ruminants crop plant matter as fact as possible, masticating it with their large and mobile tongue. When swallowed, the food passes into the rumen (the large storage chamber) and the reticulum, where the cellulose of plant cell walls (which cannot be digested by gastric juices) is broken down by symbiotic micro-organisms. Later, the animal lies down to ruminate: the partially digested plant material, known as 'cud', is regurgitated, chewed further, and re swallowed. The food now passes into the omasum, where most of the water is absorbed, and then into the abomasum - the 'true' stomach, corresponding to the stomach of other mammals - where it is acted on by ordinary digestive juices. Rumination allows animals to exploit coarse grasses and other plant matter that would otherwise be unusable. It also reduces the time taken to amass food - important for animals that often graze in places where they are vulnerable to predators. * UNGULATE CLASSIFICATION * ARTIODACTYLS 1 * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * MIGRATION * ECOSYSTEMS * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1)-01 y1x)0--1 y-101 Y--1- 100(01 -1--11y 0100U y10y1 9-0-1 (0-1- 0--0- 11T11 1T1010U p162-1 ftsTitleOverride Marine Mammals (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords An American manatee. The sirenians or sea cows - manatees and the dugong - are the only herbivorous marine mammals. Among other adaptations to life as shallow-water grazers, they lack air spaces in their bones, allowing them to sink effortlessly and remain submerged. Marine Mammals (1 of 4) In the course of evolution, some mammals returned to the sea, where millions of years previously their fish ancestors had lived. Some, such as seals, have to return to land to breed, but whales, manatees and others are entirely aquatic: they eat, sleep and give birth in water. Although united by their dependence on water, the various groups of marine mammals have separate origins. The carnivorous pinnipeds (seals and the walrus) are related to the land carnivores, while the sirenians (manatees and the dugong) share a common ancestry with elephants and - like elephants - are herbivorous. The cetaceans (whales and dolphins) form a completely separate group, related neither to the seals nor to the sirenians. Internally the bones and organs of marine mammals all closely resemble those of land mammals, and - although superficially fish-like - their paddles are in fact modified limbs. Like all other mammals, marine mammals breathe by taking in oxygen from the air, and so have to return to the surface at intervals to breathe. In some species, the respiratory system is similar to that of land mammals, but in the whales, the nose - or blowhole - is set high up on the head, and the nostrils can be closed by valves to prevent water from entering the lungs during dives. Manatees and the dugong The order Sirenia contains just four species - the single surviving species of dugong (family Dugongidae), and three species of manatee (family Trichechidae). The sirenians are also known as sea cows, as they are the only herbivorous marine mammals, feeding mainly on seaweed and other marine plants. Manatees are found in the tropical and subtropical coastal waters of the Atlantic and adjacent river systems, while the dugong is found at similar latitudes in the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea and the western Pacific. Another species of sirenian - and the largest, growing to about 7.5 m (24 1/2 ft) in length and weighing around 4 tons - was Steller's sea cow, which was confined to the Bering Sea and was the only species adapted to cold water. It had been hunted to extinction within three decades of its discovery in 1741. The surviving species of sirenian grow to about 4 m (13 ft) in length. All have heavy but streamlined bodies, tapering to the rear. The forelimbs are modified into paddles, and the hind limbs are absent. The tail is horizontally flattened - the dugong's into a crescent-shaped fluke, the manatees' into an oval fluke. Although the body is virtually hairless, the muzzle is covered in thick stiff whiskers. The dugong has a flexible overhanging upper lip, which it uses to uproot clumps of seaweed and other plants, and males have tusks formed from the incisor teeth. Manatees have a deeply split upper lip, allowing each half to be moved independently. The dugong is mainly solitary, while manatees are more gregarious, sometimes gathering in large herds. * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 10]0-\]] U8y81 011\1 0,81]8y U01T1T 0T1T81 -9T0T9 T918U18U 1TT9T0U T0U8U U00T1 ]109T9\1 y8y9U 8U8U0 8U1Ty U8y09 1x00U U\U09 0UTU9x X1T1x10 \U0]1 0U0U0UxQ U,T],yU 1\11\9 U01]0 ,T,9\0 \]T]T\ ]109U U8L90U0U9U900T10 0y]\x ]0]]0T Q\U00]\P0 08U\9x ]\]0\U, 0]9-0 TUT0U1 U0U0y0 \1U09]\ \9U19 1P1y9 U01T1 0U1U9 9T9U0]0]T 9x1]TT1 U8]\0 x0]\T90U8y98y U0]0T -0098 T,]0T9y 8U1T9U8 1T1U00 ]0U8, 8U90U1 1P10P U019T 0]00x18U0 10U9T U0]0, UT]010 909T0 T0U9\ y9x0PL T9T91 y9T9T1U0 y8TUT8 Ly\XTU4 9T18]0T1 \]8U1 ]1U01]01 U9\101\U ,11T9y -\9]1 U01\1 T10yx1T] 10T9P9Tx18 01T9U0 U0U0]00U T10T]0 T]x9U1 0U0109 1T0900T11T U01y8U0]1 U09T1 \0U0- T10U0 T09\P T109x y1T0U 0T0U80 TT10T 19UU9 1UT9U0 8U\09U0 U1T0- \Q]8U1 \U8y9x]0 L9T]T] 91T0U0y ]]19T9 TU0]90T9 81]19U9U y1]9U\9T99Q0U0 9UU8U9 T1]T0T 1T918U U01T1T T\]a9]\U9x1 9]U\1 0]18U0U]0 UTUT9 19,T0T]x98U]9 81\11 8U0]\]09T0 18U99]0U1T9 1U8101- 0U0T0 09U89y0 U]01]10]1 y9UT]TUT9x]1 ]U0U8]\]-00 y0y00U 1U09\ U9\UT x9\1T]1T U918]T9]]0U81 \U]T1U]T0 TT10] 1U8U090 ]8]0T91\9 9\1T9]0]89 U189109U8x1 T9U891\T \U]x9909x1 ^P$U\0 \-9\]]01]T \10]10] L9P)\ ,]89]y8]0]9 T1U8] 9]1T90 ]T]\]0 11x1U810 0y8U8 T]0U00 U91910]0 ]U\1]1 ]999T \]T]1\T U9\1y U0]U\UT1]0 0109U T90U1 T101\] 91\18 U0T\1 99T910U 1]9]]U U0U\]1U0U8U8]]U9 1x98]0]0 0U9T1]\ U018]110U9T]8 0U]U\U81 T1T9] 818U09 9T18]y8 TU1\1 y090U9x T91]1 0U\]90U8] 9]UT9x 0]018U 0-9T0- 1T9U9- 0U1\1]8 181T1 U\1\TU8T18 ]y0]]T1 1U8UU ]89U8U 9U9]1T 5]9U81 x9]\]1]]T ]T91U0]0 ]10U8 ]1U8U ]0U9]1\]\U9y\U8y9T]y0]0 091U\ y0]U0y U01T19 90U81U81]0 0]]T9 ]T9]UU0y9x9 T1T]U 90U81T \19U8 91]9] T190U9]19 y0]10U10 U\]U\]T 9U0UT1 0118T1x 0U0U0 U\]9]1adU 0U9\]]T1 90]90 \]]8U 90]U\1x y0U\]10UU\9T] 0]U\T] T09T9xx 9\1]1T9y8y 0x901 09y09 0]18U9x8 1U0U0U1 9T,U0 1]0]1T0 ]19U9T190 U9T9U9T9 \U1\U1U\]0 10]\U\ 91TUT]x U8T1, ]\U89U 11T1T 18y]\9 1\U8U098U0 x98xxy1]TU9 0U]U9x 1TU9xU\ 1199U0 98]9T \10]09]811]9 0U]T1 T9TU11 y8T1\ 0]]T\1 0]9U1T 8]89\1]9T U81\909U09T9U]T]U1 9U1U]-0U]T18U0U\U 81]01U90U]0] 0]81U01 ]09]9T9 U9U981T1 19T9x ]01U9 9]-09 9U8U] 1x1TP 0U8]T U81\91]9 0]01U 1]0]\U9 1T9U9\190] Y91]0 T]9T]9T9U09y8y] 9Uy\]]] 0UT1U1U8]01T9 1U0y10y ]98U] ]]8]9T91 T101\1\9\1 10]1\1\U]8yaU 9T]x9]T1 UU8y0 10]018U0]\]]y 0UUT18x 9U8U8U89 y8U]T18U0 x9U8U 091\]U]18]8U1 1U9\U]TU9x9 ]T8U1]0U9 0U1T9T90y U10UUT9 89U9U1 \9U8- 1T1\9T99]1]9T ]18U8U \1]\U8 U1T18x1]T]]0]x1 TU01T190 T90U81]] 1]]T91yT]0 T908U09T 9\1]18]0a]9]\ T1T9T1 U9U090 911\91T1U 0]]T91\0UT]T90U9x1U0 T1T80T ]0U18U\1U 9T1\909 ]]\18U 0U-01 Y]91U9- \\U9U yy9x> ]]T]T 18U1]0 8U810U1U1 0U0x9U9T9- 11T1U0 =9]9U8 \090]\18 8U8U9 U0]\9]T 101T10U91T 0U8]8U0 ]0U99 \9T99T ]]1\yU8U aT1\91 ]81]Y0U 9]99] 19]1] U\U]\9 ]]]af \9999] 9\9U9U1 ]\]81 0]0U99U9] 1]981]9]] \118\1 8U9\19 U9b]> \1x9T 18U0] 9T1]0 Y9U99 090]1 09T99 ]8]189 U9U9]]-9 ^]]18 99]90M1] U]9]19 T981T9 18U89]] 9]0]0] 9119]= :]]]8]9 \9U9\ U09U98 19U891 ]9x9T 9]190 ]19U0 9]\]9]9 U9]191 ]]9]9 ]8]9U ]891\1\ ]99\19U9 1]99y89U9 5\1]]-9\1 ]9]]] 91]98]9]1 99\1]9\18 9]a]| 81]919 9T9]9]19U9\1 ]9U9]\]91]018 8]]]\]9 U9\91 9-9U0b] -0]\a 9T19]19 191\9 ]9]Y]]9U y=1ba ]\9]9] \]99] ]]9998]] 1]9U0 81]90 8U8]U 9]8]\y8 10]1\98U91 ]9U9U9]0]1 99\1]0 90]9] ]0]0]1T90]9 9\]8U 9]9]] 189]9 \999T9]1 99]:18 x9T9U\U 98]1U 1]99U9U9]9U 9]8]9U ]]]]]89 ]99]1 U91918] 9\9]9]] a]]]9 ]]9]8y 9\]T9 ]]999U 9199]19` 8UUa]]09]9 9\99T] Y9]1U09] ]]]9T 99U9U9 ]09U8 ]9U1]1 U9]Ty8 ]9T9U b]b]\ Y\9]9Y 0]9T1\]8U 9U8]91]9U9 \1]09]] 9]09]9]9 \9\91 91\99 1U1:T91]9]1 ]89]91U ]99y9]] 919]9 91]91 9]99]9] 189T99] ]]]]]> >:9]9y }]\U\ ]1]918 ]99]1 a]9999 ]95]9] 9]01T1 98]1] 9U9]: 89\90U8 ]8]99U9]]1]9]1 9]9]9 \]\90] 19\99 ]9]\1 ]UT99 ]1]1\ 99]91 ]1]91 ]9U9]1 9]9]9]9 ]:^1 $B^1] ^:b^]^ 1:]:> U1]10 19U1U:0 1-151] 9]U^U Z9^U]9 :\29Y ]1]91U ]191U9 9:U:U 919U911 51]:1] U9V91 9U:]] U9U]^9 92^by:]^^: :^1^:91 9^]^] :U:]1 9]999 9YU1] Y:]:2] 1U:U:]1 ]9^9y 9U9:11 ]19U9 :^^]^] 9^19]1]: 9^:]: ]:]:U :^]^9^]:U : :^:^:^ ]:^:^] ^]^9: ]]]:9 ::]ba 9^^^:^:] ::^:^ 9^]^::^ ^]^:: >:^:: :^:]^ b^b9^ :^9:^ ^::^:^ ^:^:^: ^::^: :^:^^;: ^:^:: ^^::_ ^:^:^ ::^:^: :^:^^ :^::^ :^::^:^: ^:^:: :^:::^: ^^:^:^ ^>^:?^ :^::^: _:::b::^ ::^:::: ^:^:^ ^::_: b:^:^:^ ^:::::^ >:^?:: ^::^^ ::^:::::: :b:^: :b:^:^ :^:^:^ :^:^: >f:::^>:: :?b;^:^:: ^:^::^:^ :::^:: ::::^:^b:^: : :^> :^;>^::^: ::^::>^ ^:^:^: ::_::; 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Males set up and defend territories, in which they gather together and mate with a number of females. Usually a single pup is born, which (unlike most pinnipeds) remains with its mother for about two years. Marine Mammals (2 of 4) Seals and the walrus The order Pinnipedia includes three families: the eared seal family (Otariidae) - distinguished by the possession of external ears - which includes 13 species of fur seal and sea lion; 18 species of earless(or 'true') seals (family Phocidae); and the single species of the walrus family (Odobenidae). The pinnipeds are closely related to the order Carnivora, and are indeed sometimes included in that order. All species are predatory, feeding mainly on fish and squid. The hands and feet of pinnipeds are flattened into flippers, and the body is streamlined. All species have thick layers of insulating blubber, and most species have a covering of coarse hair to protect the skin when on shore. Although pinnipeds are more at home in water, all species are capable of moving on land - and have to return to the shore to breed and to molt. Walruses and the eared seals are able to bring their hind limbs forward to facilitate movement on land - an ability lacking in the true seals. Most pinnipeds are highly gregarious. During the breeding season, they gather in large numbers at traditional breeding grounds called rookeries. Males (much larger than females in most species) typically become highly territorial, with dominant males seeking to defend harems of females. All sea lions and many other seal species give birth to young conceived during the previous breeding season, so allowing birth and mating to be synchronized in the short period when adults are together on land. Although less mobile than other pinnipeds on land, earless seals are superb swimmers and divers. The Weddell seal of the Antarctic, for instance, regularly dives to depths of over 300 m (985 ft), and one was recorded at 600 m (1970 ft), where it remained for 43 minutes. To facilitate prolonged dives, seals are able to shut off the blood supply to all the organs except the brain (the muscles operate on their own stored oxygen), and the blood itself has a higher oxygen-storage capacity than that of other mammals. Walruses are usually found in the shallow coastal waters of the Arctic. Male walruses can grow to around 3.5 m (11 1/2 ft) and weigh around 1.5 tons. Tusks formed from the upper canine teeth are present in both sexes, but are larger in males. They grow continually for up to 30 years, reaching lengths of over 1 m (39 in). The walrus uses its tusks to heave itself onto ice floes and to keep open breathing holes in the ice. They are also used to plow up the sea bed in search of mollusks and for sparring with rival males in the breeding season. Several species of seal have been brought to the brink of extinction by hunting for meat, oils and hides. However, under protection, most seals show remarkable powers of recovery. The huge northern elephant seal, for instance, once found from Alaska to California, was reduced to fewer than 100 individuals by 1900. 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MTQ,-L Q(,LQPLuL PpTQ0P PUP(tL ,Q(P)x0P-( (tP-L,yPPLt( 1-191 ,,U,0 LTP0t-y, P(,tUu 0PxPtTuTty,(y uxQLTu L1TQT,L,yy,0x,PU,P(,1t PxPpttT tQp-ty,y P1P),Q0, ,tQTU,P L,P,-,PU,P(P,-x)xx,(Q,MPu,pQt 911]1 ,1,(Q,M01x0U,y, L,)P,M,t(,1P PPLPPpUt u(uxQ( ,L,yTU,1x- P)PTu(P-L, u(yx,Q(, TtT,xQxPp,,y, p1tUT 0yTP-T-T,0P1t xyxTuPyTu P-Q,L-P1P 11U1, ux-pt-x ,P1P1 yQx,U,x,1t(UPP(tyPyP UyTQ( -PL,u(P yxPxT ,P(tP( UP-T0yUx,yP-0 LtUxtUtqTt UT,Q(Q PPp,uTP(,t, Q,L1,y0yUPUT,UPUTuP1P TtPPpy, Q(P,(T-P, PQxTP PyxTQTUTU,tyT ,)PUP t(-LQP(uPLP(- ,)PUxy,L1 Ut(,M LPt(t(P,L 10yy0 ,y,yUxUt ,x,yx)x L,,UPP P)t,(P,up0t, ]QT-0Q(x 0,-t( ,P(x-,yPxUtxPyTtQ PU,p,Mt(tP ,P(tq,upPP L,L1tyxUx )t,pyt,P yx1PT ,tUxQxt P-(P,),LP yUt,y ,P,tUy ,L,(t, 19U91 (P(U1UT (P-p,-t xtLQLyP PM,t(P(Q(x,L,p 11911 UY9]1U1]11 tTPPp,tTQ p162-3 ftsTitleOverride Marine Mammals (page 3) ftsTitle The killer whale is the world's largest predator of warm-blooded prey, moving in packs to hunt for seals, penguins and even other species of whale. Although closely related to dolphins, the killer whale is not only much bigger, but is further distinguished by its unbeaked snout and exceptionally tall dorsal fin - growing to nearly 2 m (6 1/2 ft) in adult males. Marine Mammals (3 of 4) Whales, dolphins and porpoises The order Cetacea is divided into two groups: one of toothed whales (dolphins, porpoises and most of the smaller whales); the other of baleen whales, which contains most of the giants of the sea, including the blue whale, the largest animal ever known to have existed. Unlike all other marine mammals, the cetaceans spend their entire life in water. They occur in all oceans, as well as a few of the larger river systems and lakes connected to them. Their adaptations to marine life are similar to those of seals: the body is streamlined, there is an insulating layer of blubber, and the limbs are modified into paddles. In cetaceans, however - like sirenians - the hind limbs are absent, and instead there is a horizontally flattened tail fluke, which provides the principal means of propulsion. To varying degrees, all whales are gregarious, forming groups known as schools. The five families of toothed whales (the larger of the two cetacean groups) include the dolphin and porpoise family (Delphinidae, 40 species); the river dolphin family (Platanistidae, 6 species); and three families of whales - sperm whales (Physeteridae, 3 species), white whales (Monodontidae, 2 species), and beaked whales (Ziphiidae, 18 species). All species have teeth, ranging from a single pair in some of the beaked whales to as many as 260 in some dolphin species - a record for any mammal. Toothed whales feed mainly on fish, octopus and squid. In order to detect prey, most species use a form of ultrasonic sonar, similar to the echolocation used by bats, emitting rapid high-pitched squeaks and clicks in order to gauge the position of surrounding objects. Most dolphins are characterized by their streamlined form and beaked snouts. They are extremely gregarious, forming schools sometimes of over a hundred individuals (not necessarily of a single species), in which a well-developed social hierarchy is established. Dolphins generally grow to between 2.5 and 4 m (8 1/4 and 13 ft) and the largest of them - the killer whale - can grow to over 9 m (30 ft). Dolphins produce a single offspring, which - like all marine mammals - is well developed at birth. The calf is usually born tail-first, and is helped to the surface by its mother to take its first breath of air. River dolphins are found in the major river systems of India, South America and China. They have long slender beaks and domed foreheads. Because their native rivers are muddy and murky, they are heavily dependent on echolocation to avoid obstacles and detect prey, and some species, such as the Ganges dolphin, are blind. The porpoises are the smallest of the whales. They are very similar to dolphins, but are shorter and stockier, and do not have a beaked snout. They are generally found in coastal waters, often venturing up rivers for several kilometers. The largest of the toothed whales is the sperm whale. Males formerly grew to about 24 m (79 ft) - roughly twice the size of females - but two centuries of intensive hunting have led to a considerable decrease in size. The most striking feature of the sperm whale is its huge squarish head, which contains the largest brain of any animal - weighing around 9.2 kg (over 20 lb). The majority of the head, however, is filled with spermaceti wax - nearly 2000 liters of it - which gives the whale its name. The precise function of this wax is not known, but it may be involved in sound transmission, or help to regulate buoyancy during dives. Sperm whales can dive to around 1000 m (3280 ft) and remain submerged for up to 75 minutes. They feed mainly on deep water squid. The two species of white whale are restricted to Arctic coastal waters. One of them, the narwhal, has an extraordinary spiral tusk, which may grow to over 2.5 m (8 1/4 ft) - sometimes as long as the whale's body. It is in fact a hugely elongated upper incisor, but its precise function is unclear. * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 090]T901 y:]1- L,p-^> U1]U1y y01U11xU, U1u1U ]U]U1U y0Q1- y1T1U 115T- ]9]9U ,q,H- 1U1y1TU 1Y:99 ]]0]9 1]1y11 ]y1,- 11U011 0U19P U,L,P) TUx,, 001001y 191\19 U1011T1U1 UyUUY UP1-8,- UU1-1U1yY1 UTTUTLH u:yTU] 090901810 ,T9yxU9 (,0Tt(TT ,),1P 1]11T y]z1y: 1011-0 --,-) 1T--( y1y1x- 19U1UT1U- -10-1 1-11- lUtyy QU-Ub -1Y11Y ,^]Y1 -1U1y 1U11U -11-- 1-1-- 1T1U1 19V8-U1 U811U 191U8U191 Q1Y1U91 1U11- p162-4 ftsTitleOverride Marine Mammals (page 4) ftsTitle A group of Southern Right whales migrating near the Great Australian Bight. The Right Whales are quite rare - the baby whale in the group is one of a very few seen in these waters. Marine Mammals (4 of 4) There are three families of baleen whales: the single species of the grey whale family (Eschrichtidae) of the coastal waters of the northern Pacific; three species of right whale (Balaenidae); and six species of rorqual whale (Balaenopteridae). Despite their great size, all baleen species feed by filtering food from sea water. In the southern oceans, krill (tiny planktonic crustaceans) form the principal part of their diet, but other planktonic animal life and even small fish may also be eaten. In order to accommodate this specialized diet, the teeth are replaced by hundreds of sheets of horny brush-like material known as baleen (or whalebone), which hang from the upper jaw. The inner edges of these sheets are fringed with long fibers, which mat together to form a sieve. In order to feed, a baleen whale takes a huge mouthful of water, half shuts the mouth, and then presses the tongue forward: the water is forced out, while the krill (or other food) remains behind and is swallowed. Rorquals are distinguished from other baleen whales by the many grooves - up to 94 in the case of the blue whale - running along the throat. The vast blue whale grows to around 30 m (100 ft) and can weigh over 150 tons. It feeds only during the summer months, but during this time may consume over 2 tons of krill per day. The humpback whale - another rorqual - is more gregarious than the blue whale, and is usually seen in family groups of three or four members. As is the case with other rorquals, these whales are great migrants. They move from their summer feeding grounds off Alaska to spend the winter in the tropical waters off Hawaii, where they produce the calves conceived during the previous breeding season, mate, and indulge in their famous singing. Their complex songs usually last for about 10 minutes, and may be repeated for hours on end. Their purpose is not clear, but they seem to be mainly confined to the breeding season and are specific to different populations. They may aid identification and help to coordinate movement during migration. Right whales are so called because they were regarded by whalers as the 'right' whales to kill: they are stockier and less streamlined than other baleen whales, and so more easily overtaken. They lack throat furrows and have enormous heads, which accommodate 700 baleen plates. Right whales have been hunted commercially in such numbers that today they are rare. Their fate is typical of other large whales, almost all of which have been hunted to the point of extinction. * ANIMAL BEHAVIOR * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC * FISHING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText WTN.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "WTN" defaultPage fName ).tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Whales, Southern Rightcont;' ++O++ $++O+O $+OUOU +VVO+ OUVU+ +P++V %+PV+ zVzV+ +PV++% ++,++PVV +%+Vz VV,++ PV++V +V{V++ P++VP+ ,+%+% PV++P **++* V++VV yO+$++ VU+$++ V+OVz +%+%+V %+,+%++, V++VzU+% zzV++ ++%+,+, $++PV P+%+WV ++$+V{ V,+%+ PV+%+ $++VPV O*OUV+ +PV+%+ PVPV,%+ +UVO+ U+$++ ++,++ zVO++O+ zVO+OO V++,+ VP++, VVP++% ,++,++ ++$$++O+O VV++V ,++,+ OUVOV +,+,+, {V+OV ++%+%+ {V++P ,+,+,++ ++,+, zU*PVV ++%+VP+ ,++%++ ,+,VV ++%+, ++,VV VP+%+V ++%++ ++,+V ++,+% +VV+%+V ++PVV +%+VWV +%+,+ VV++,P ,++%+ VP++% VP++V PV,+% ,VVP+ ,+VV+, ,++,+ zV+%+ ,++,PVV ,+%++ +,++% +,+,++%+%+ %++,+, ,++%+ zO+Uz +,++%+ +,++,++, VO++z %,++% zz+OV {VV%+VV ,++%+,+ VV,+% W++VV ++VP++ +,++%+P +,+%+ zVyOO+O+ zVVUO+ PVP,+, +%++P VWP++, ,++,V, ,++%+V PVV,V VP++, VWVWVV +,++%, ++%++ zVO,+ ,+%+,+ +,+%+ ++PVVP VVPVVP +,++P+, +%++, +,+,+ ,+PVV +%,,+ +,++, ,++%+ %+,+% VO+Vz V++%+ +VO+z ++,++ ++VVP++ V{VV++W ,++,,+ %+,+% VP++VP ,++,V +,++, VVWVWVWV ,++,++ W,+,,+, ,+,++,++, WV,++ ++,++ VzV++V +,,++ ++,++ %+,+,++ VzV+U +%+%+%+ ,++%+ %+,++ +,++, +,++% VV++V OUVVzV VVWV,+, +,VV, zzyVO +OO+O ,++%+ VP++, ,+,+, ++,++,+ %++,++,++ %+,VV ++,++,++ zyzzyz W,+,++ +VV++V OUzVzV ++,++ zzy++Uz ++,++ +,+%++ +,++, zzyUz +%+,++ +%++% ,++,+ zVO+V ,VV,+ ,++,+ ,+,++, VOUOU PV+%+ VUzzy VV,+% ++,+, ,++,+, ,+PV++ +%+%+ ++%++%++ %+,++ ,+,,V +%++% V++VV +,,++ V+,++ %++,+ VV++V +%++,+% +,+,+ ,VVWV VO++VV VzVVO VVOUO ,+,++ ++,++,+ VzVVzzVz V+,++ ++,++ VVUVz zVUVV VV,+,, ++,VV ++,+, ++,++% V++%+ ++%++ +O++, ,++,++,+, +,++,+ ,++VV +,++% V+*+V VV,++ +WV+%+, ++%++ ,++,+ ++,++, ++,+,+ +,+,+ V,+%+, ++,++, zVV++V +%++, VVUOOUOO ,VPVP +O++* ++,++ VVzV+ ++,+V VVO+V WV,++%+ ,VPVPV+ p164-1 ftsTitleOverride Primates (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The Woolly spider monkey, with its long limbs and prehensile (grasping) tail, is among the most agile and acrobatic of all New World Monkeys. Spider monkeys use their tails as a fifth limb to grasp branches or gather food. Primates (1 of 5) Although the similarity between man and the apes has long been recognized, the likeness was regarded by many as purely coincidental and no particular significance was placed on the fact. Indeed, when Linnaeus classified man as a primate in 1758, it was generally regarded as a great blow to human dignity, and subsequent classifications persisted in placing man in a separate order. Only after Darwin was it generally accepted that man does indeed belong with the primates. The order Primates consists of around 180 species, ranging in size from the tiny mouse lemur to the powerful gorilla. Apart from man, they are largely confined to the tropical regions of the world. Within the order, two suborders are recognized: the prosimians, or primitive primates, which include lemurs, the aye-aye, lorises and tarsiers; and the anthropoids, or higher primates, which include marmosets, monkeys, apes and man. Tree shrews have traditionally been classified as primates on the basis of structural similarities, but recent analysis of molecular data has placed them in an order of their own, far removed from the primates. Primate characteristics Although highly varied in form, primates are distinguished as a group by certain common characteristics, including a flexibility of behavior that is linked to their relatively large brains. Many of their distinguishing characteristics are related to their essentially arboreal (tree-dwelling) nature. While smell is the most important sense for most ground-living mammals, the primates - particularly the anthropoids - have a well-developed visual system, with forward-facing eyes and binocular (i.e. stereoscopic) vision, and a highly refined sense of touch, with sensitive tactile pads on fingers and toes and flat nails rather than claws. It is possible that it was this development of sight and touch that has allowed primates - particularly man - to become so highly versatile in their behavior. The large brains of primates, notable for the complexity and elaboration of the cerebral cortex, resulted in the development of intelligence, particularly in the higher primates such as man. Another characteristic primate feature is their prehensile (grasping) hands and feet, vital for moving around safely in trees, and the opposable thumb and big toe, which are capable of being moved freely and rotated. Although less well developed in the prosimians, this ability gives primates both power and precision in their grip. Most primates usually have single births or twins, and all have a long life-cycle and gestation period relative to their size. But the most notable feature of primates is not in the gestation period itself but in the length of time the young remain psychologically dependent on their parents - 2 1/2 years in lemurs, 3 1/2-4 years in monkeys, 3-5 years in apes, and 12-14 years or more in man. These periods of dependence seem to be correlated with brain size and complexity of social system. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ;_:_:_ ;_;^;_: _;;;> _:;_; _;_;^ ;_?:;^?:2 2:;_; ;_;;_ _;_;_ ^:_?;c;c;c;c;; :_?;c;_ ;;c;;_ _?;_; ;_;c; ?_;?; _?_?; ;?;c;c ^;c;_ ?_?_;?_ _;?_?; :_?;c c_?;_ ;?;c;; ;_;?_?_ c;;_? _;;_; ;_?;;? ;_;?_ _?;c?_?c;_ ;_;_;_;_ ;_;;; ;?_?_ _;_?_?_: _?;c;_ ;c;_: _;;;;_ _;?c;; _;c;c ?;c?: ??_?_ _;_?^ _?_?_; ;_?;?;?_?;? ;^;_;c;_?; ;c;?;c ;;;_; _;c;?;c ?;c;_ ;_;;_ ;_?_?C c;___ _??_; )---- _?;_c?_;^ 2_?g??_? c;?;c ?;c;cC;c _;_;c ;c;c; --1-- _?_?;c;c c;?_? 11-),-- _;c;_ ,--1,- Q-011M --1111 ;?_;?_ -,-1yyU P1110101- -11-112V:V 1111- 2^;1- ;_?c;c -T1y1---- 1)11-1 2^;_: U111111-1 -1-1- ^;;?_ ;_;_; ,1P1L--- ,-111U11V2:_ ;?;cC_ _?;c; --T1Q ,1-11U111 22:;_;?_; c;;c;c :__?;cC ;_?;?_ P1UU- ,11U111-1UU1 2^:_;_ ;_;_;c;_;V 11-,1- c;?_?C_; -01-U Uy11U0UUU11U1-U 2^;;;_;c; ?_:2U- -1-1- )1--1- 1U0U-- Q0y1U11-T-T111--0 111V;;_?_? c_?;; ;?_:1 1111--P- ,1-0-- ,1y1y1U0y1U11--1T1-1-11 ^;_?;?; _?:V1 -11-1 U1-1)11)1- _;?_?g;?_ 1U1U1T1y1y1y1U110-1U1-11-- ?_?_; 1U111M1-1- -111-11-11-1- ;?cCc;?c --0UUU yUUUUUy1y1y1Q111-1- _;?_?_? 11-10----T--- ---0--,111- Q0U1UUUU0U1y1y1U10U1T1111 _?;_?_ U11-1-1T -,-0- -0-1,- 1U1y-,U11UUy1U1UUY10y111Q1 11U1U1 ?_?_?_?; 111--1- ----,- 1y111y]y U]yUy1UUU1U1U11UU ;?_?;c;;_; U1U11-1(1T11M01-1---- c;?_; _1 11-111 1011U11P1--U y1y5y 1UUUyyU 1111- ;_?g;c;c;c ;c;_;; ;_;;c;? y1111)T--1111M101111,110-- 1y1U1y YUyUy1UU111x c;_?_?_;_ ^ 1U101- -0-1111-1T1U11-,1- 1-11111yU1U11U11,1U111-1U1 2U11- _?;_?_? ?_?_?;cC; _;c;_ c;;_;?_ UU1-1-,-----01-U1111(1U11- -1-,1U10y1111U1 1-1-12V22 _?_?c; _?_;_?_;_?; 1U111-1-0-111110U111111M0- -1--1011U11- cC_?; ?;c ; P---,1-11111 11-01--,- --11- ;c?_c _?;_?;_?_;_; ^ y1U11--- 11L1101T-1- 11--- _;_:- yUU11M0----- Q0-11,1- -110Q _?;cC_ c;?_c;?__ 1101)T --,U--T-011- _?;?; _;?;c; y1YU1 --,1--, _;?c; c;c;c;?; _?_?_ 111M1--,- ;_?;V c;?_?; yUy111(--- _?g;?_? ;_;c; ?c;;c_ Y1U-1-, c;_;_? 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It has large, naked ears, rodent-like incisors, and long, slender fingers, particularly the third one. It taps on a tree trunk to locate insect larvae, listens for movement, then uses its long finger to extract its prey. Sometimes it first tears open the wood with its powerful teeth. The young are produced only every 2-3 years, and are suckled for a full year. Primates (2 of 5) Lemurs Most species of lemur are confined to the forests of Madagascar, although some are found in the nearby Comoro Islands, where they may have been introduced by man. Lemurs are primarily arboreal but may come down to the ground to look for food. Their diet includes insects, small vertebrates, fruit buds, shoots, leaves and bark. Many species are nocturnal. All except the indri have long tails - often longer than the head and body combined. The young are usually produced annually and suckled for 6 months. Both sexes have special scent glands to mark their territorial boundaries. The smallest are the 7 species of mouse lemur (family Cheirogaleidae), with a head-and-body length of 12.5-15 cm (5-6 in), while the true lemurs (Lemuridae;16 species) grow to around 45 cm (18 in).The ring-tailed lemur has a conspicuous bushy tail banded in black and white; it is active by day and spends much time on the ground. The indri (family Indriidae) is the largest lemur, up to 90 cm (3 ft) long and almost tailless. The closely related sifakas are around half their size, and can leap considerable distances from tree to tree - up to 10 m (33 ft) - aided by gliding membranes. Lorises, pottos and galagos Eleven species of the family Lorisidae - the lorises, pottos and galagos (or bushbabies) - are found in Africa and southern Asia. They are largely nocturnal and arboreal, with large, round eyes. The lorises and pottos are small (less than 40 cm / 16 in long), and have no tails. Although slow-moving and not known to leap or jump, they are skilled climbers. Feeding largely on insects, they approach their prey stealthily and then seize it with their hands. The galagos, by contrast, are agile leapers and have long furry tails. The largest species, the greater galago, grows to 37 cm (14 1/2 in) plus a tail of 47 cm (18 1/2 in) and the smallest, Demidoff's galago, to around 10 cm (4 in) with a tail of 15 cm (6 in). Galagos eat a wide variety of insects and other small animals, as well as gums and nectar. Tarsiers The three closely related species of tarsier (family Tarsiidae) are found in the forests and other thickly vegetated habitats of the Philippines and Indonesia. They are at the most 16 cm (6 1/2 in) long, with a naked tail up to 27 cm (11 in). Their most obvious features are their huge eyes, which are 16 mm ( 2/3 in) in diameter. They have short arms and long legs, and the fingers and toes are all tipped with soft round pads enabling them to grip almost any surface. They are proficient jumpers: on the ground they can leap distances of 1.7 m (5 1/2 ft) and to a height of 0.6 m (2 ft), and can make even greater leaps from tree to tree. Marmosets and tamarins The marmosets and tamarins (family Callitrichidae) are the smallest of the anthropoids, with a body length of 13-37 cm (5 1/4-15 in) and long tails. Many have tufts or ruffs of fur round their heads, and all have claws on hands and feet, with a flat nail only on the big toe. These and the monkeys of the Cebidae family are the only non-human primates found in the New World. Both families have flat noses with widely spaced nostrils, in contrast to the Old World monkeys. The marmosets and tamarins live mostly in tropical forest, particularly around the Amazon basin. Like all the anthropoids except the night monkey, they are active by day. They are mainly arboreal, bounding swiftly through the trees rather like squirrels. They have a varied diet including nuts, insects, bark and sap, and are sociable animals living in small family groups. The New World monkeys The 31 species of New World monkey belong to the family Cebidae, and include capuchins, howlers, spider monkeys and woolly monkeys. They are mostly confined to the tropical forests of South America and are largely arboreal. Apart from the uakari, they all have long, often strongly prehensile tails, which serve as a fifth limb when swinging through the forest. They range in size from the squirrel monkeys, which are around the size of marmosets, to the massive howler monkeys, with a body length of 80-90 cm (32-36 in). Howlers are noted for their powerful voices, which can be heard up to 3 km (1.9 mi) away. The male howler calls loudly for periods of up to half an hour to signal possession of a territory. All New World monkeys are gregarious, living in family-based groups with much visual and vocal communication. Their diet is largely vegetarian. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture UPLU\ Py1P9 U$,T1 1x]T01 0x\yl ]a]$P, y%1:U H$0Pa ,^Mx2 Tt-T,x P,$T-L ,L0by 00H,Q 1t0jT H\QTyy (xT,y Tt0TU \uLP\t 1--\t x0tPL -x1Ut UT:$,U, tP,0PU tTU\yP ,P,l]$ UyUY^ \x11tt] -0Pt: P]P(x }]T01 x,1$$ ,QMP-( >S-x, -P$,U $xyyx 0U,t]x $9U-yi UT,,yT 19]1$ H,0,( PpQLT -R]t t\T,$ -TP(, Qx-U,LPP( ,x\QU P,,x-1x0 ,T\tU -L,,x$ (0T,x PTx]Py \,M$PT UP(PT ,0P,T P0x=U T1-x1, 0PTyT $t(y0 xTU,T1y 1.TUY H0zQx P0-U0x 1U]xy z1Uy9 xfV9H UxUPtPU 9PTP( P0T0, ]P(x,T Q 0^]yb ,P(,t 0-xUP0 1,P1x ,\ux- x-L,$xU ,1y0T P(xt-, :0,t0 1UbUUu\1x UPUT] 1-Tyx LU\01xUx P10P,L xTT9u Tt,(U,U ]U$,( ,HTP0U, 0-P0T]P P1t(,xtTQ ,LUT1x T0tU1P :0U]y-x $T,L, ^^1$P( T-(tb ]Q0:^ TPTx]x ]0-1x UyUUa T1x,Q] Px\T0U 4LQ1P T-,T0P ,Q($y0T1Ux tL0PP T,T]T] $y\1xTy ,y\xU PQLH, P(PLP )TPpPu ,Lf_T 1x1T]P, PU1,xQ]T U-,T,0P ,L,M0 (P)u,P)P 1TTQ\L, P,0-0P y0U1Ty 1,(0$,P P(PUy$ ]T1UT PtTQLP 0-P-9 (U$0L,1 ,-,UTP- -TP-a $-Yy1x t0x,1 ,P1,y,pT ,L0xTxxTx 0xxTx ,T,)P,,$U, P,)y, Tx1Px TxTT, xTtL$ PUxxt UP9I,TUP x\xTP x$-2y ]x(P- HUP,L ,T1-Ly $$0,P ,)T,PP 1)P,t 1,Pax Q-xTu(Q0y $,P]P L,x,T, $xUx, PPUtTTU t(,P(P PLtPPp,p, P$t,p, PLPPp, yTP-%x tLPP( P$t(ttL y0T10 (P,$0u, tPL,LP yt,1x $PLtt$ $,p,PL$ LtL0TP( u-LPP $tPpP NPtLPH xxQy, ,(tPt yx-(P P(,PT$ LPT,P 0,11P$,U xTxxP 1xUUTP ,0xt$,L p,,t,tL (Q^,U P,t(tPpP yTt0xU x,L,(P (t(xH 10-uT L,pPt UP0yTxt (PQL,TP0P1 P(PPtL P(--P $H]UH $$xPt UPu0Q U0P)PTx$0P T-LTxPHy^ PtTxTtTx, 11$,L1y 0,p1P ,(T,L P1yt( ,xx]] --P),$ TU1t1, 0,L,- P-U0tU $-\Py P1tp,T, L$$0$$L UTUP1\0P ,0,$P(,,L LQ1P] ,LU0P UTUPL$ \9T]T 0-0T00 (010U x10T0 U10U1 dx11T, ,0T0T T00P00 0,T0P0 0T,xT (,0U$ 8x1\\ T00P10 T,T1,, x18T- 8U0t0 U0TTt 01x00 UP0U, 8T1TU9 ,T0P0 0Hx,T,, HH]y0UT ,PPtxT T1T00 t1]1%0 x]UTx \P,0T, $$t0t X-,(T ,U0P, y0P,Le 0P,0T1T1T 100T1P yTHPUx P(1PU0, T1T10T T0P(0 LTP,( T,U0U -(,xx,P0 P,($1yb ,10Q0T (P)TP ,1,-T$ T,0T0 0PPx, T,T,0U T1T,U, -LPxQL$ T%TUt ,,L0,P 0P0P(T-T, L00P0 T0,$x P(QU,,L-P x-x$,P-x P,L,L (P),P1,P T0,0T P-,P( ,P8t0 10x$1 0,T0P, (,T,1,L, )P,(P,L ,PU(,L, -Lt,H T,]TT P(1,,Q xP$U, P1TPp ,L,-,( (1P,M,TU \8\T9 ,T,P(,T Q,L-,T-( P(UP,x ,L,(1P (P,(x,0 P,,(-0t y,$tHT PU-T,M0, L,M,, (P(P(P0$ yUt$e Q(T,,T,,L x,0t: ,-,L-( ,1P,LTQT Q(P(] y0,(P-(Q, M,L,L,P -0P,, y,x03 (P1P(,T,) P0,L1P, T0T0, ,T,P-0P)P ,P,(P u(t0u U1,Md 0U,T,0 0Q0T1, P(Q-( T,T0T P-L,P, P,L,P(1-P P,T00P0 ,(U,,MP,L, -00P0 ,t(-L (P0P,L,x PTQ(Q1x- ]0yUy] ,),P,P, (,L,x,(P,U ,(T,L0 ,P)tP 001$1] x11$TT, T00,P ,MPM,,L P(P-M, MTT1T 9P-y9 TP1P(T, ,(T,P,)T,t tPp,t 011T, Q,,0-x P(P,P(T,0, QT]\y P-0Q(,P -,,M$, 1P,U,,T, Q,L0t )x,(0Q(,P, Q,L,(T,1 P,(-P(, Pp,P)P T1T00 ,,T,1P 1,T,TPP0,$ P-(P- Q(TQP0Q ,L-(P P00T, ,0QTt(0t ),L,T U,,PU, y1tLx] \t0x1 )0T41 0P,L,Q(P1u ,p0P-T,P(P PL,T1PTy0u p164-3 ftsTitleOverride Primates (page 3) ftsTitle Male mandrills are distinguished by their bright facial and posterior markings. Along with the olive baboon, the heavily built mandrill is the largest of the Old World monkeys, weighing up to 19.5 kg (43 lb) and with a body length up to 1 m (31/4 ft). Primates (3 of 5) The Old World monkeys The 85 species of Old World monkey (family Cercopithecidae) include the macaques, mandrills, mangabeys and others. They are found in the South American monkeys. All walk on all fours and have thin noses with forward-pointing nostrils, and none have prehensile tails. Some species, such as baboons are found in open, often rocky, arid areas, and spend most of their time on the ground - although they generally sleep in trees. The Japanese macaque is the only primate other than man that lives in latitudes where winter temperatures drop below freezing. The Old World monkeys are generally larger than the South American primates, and often have heavy manes and bare buttock pads, sometimes brightly colored. The male proboscis monkey of Borneo has a huge pendulous nose that straightens out when it makes its loud honking call. The females are generally smaller - sometimes only half the size - and less brightly colored, with lighter manes or none at all. Old World monkeys are primarily vegetarian, but some may supplement their diet with insects and small animals. The gibbons All members of the ape family (Pongidae) have protruding jaws and lack tails, but the slender, agile gibbons are otherwise very different from the sturdy, powerful great apes. The nine species of gibbon are all found in the forests of Southeast Asia and Indonesia. They are perhaps the best adapted of all mammals for moving swiftly through the forest canopy, using their extremely long arms and hooked hands to swing from branch to branch. The largest is the siamang, with a body length of 90 cm (3 ft) and a spread of 1.5 m (nearly 5 ft) from hand to hand. Most male gibbons have an inflatable throat sac used to amplify their voice. The loud calls are important both for communicating within the family group and for defining their territory. Gibbons are primarily fruit eaters, and live in family groups of two to six. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture \xT1P( PTxU, T0Q0x0 P]1x0,U0 1,U(y L0,UTPy, T,\y0 L1T0P-1T- x1yTT,U ,]P01T x1TxTU PTUPT P1,Tx t00P0PTx, px0xUxUT-0 t]\$T ,0x,y 0t,TT- PUxt]x p--0x ,x,x0 ]xPTPP \x0yxU T0P0tTTx0 yTyTxT TUPTx PTP\t 0Py]L 1TUT]T PxTP1 x0P(0 10U0- T-0P0 t-PTP, 0UTU1TU 0t0x, x,UPTU PT,,( ,0,P1 xTxxTy P(x,T xPT,,xT PTxPLT, P,,y,, ,P,LTP 0tTtT PU,L, TP-p,T u0PTP $t,xPx, (uTPTt ,pPPp 0P,,x $1PU,(y t]PLTP ,TTt]x L,LP, ]PTxTt (PxTx ,,PTxt P\,y0U1t ,T0,T t1-xU Tx9x8T ]t8P-y -0y\Q ]xT],U0 1],-1T1 U]U1x0 PtxPx,(x t,T,xu xTt,t\L xx,x0P x,0(x t]LUtP xPxx, PTPx, xUP]P(yx PTPUt LT$0P(1P, t,Lt, PP0xT PxTxx ,]LTt x,p,0t x0x,xxyT Ux]x]y ,-PP(PL 0yTTP 1PT,xT PLP)x 0t,xT tLx0y UPTt0x xxPp,P P0P,x0t ,,xPU $0tTtT PTxTP0Q, 0,UTP ,T,,T Tt,xP (xTTPL, TP,0yTx P0P,PL t,(P,xtPx, LTP)x0x1P (xP0,LTT,x TPp0,p xP]Tx x0Uax -Tx-T PxPx, ,p0xx1, -0P1,yTx]x ],TU\P]P 0UP-TP1PTx ,,T,U ,L,P0)x Tx,TT ,T,,0P P(x1PTxUxT TyTxT $,-x, ]xTTP TT0tTTP tTPTt x0P0PT $PTx9,P( xTU,T ,xUPU P0y,y,TU xU\y0 T,$,T- UPT1x UTQTT,0 ]x1xx, Ty0Tx 0P0,x0 ,(P0U,p\P1 \Q0y0 P]xTP P(T1T t0x0P, TTxy,y\UPy 0Q01P 0xTPUx 0U0y0 U$UTU, $T1T1 0P1-0 P\$TP] x01T1U0 TU0T1 x0PTU ]$UU-0 TUT9U01x1 T0,U0 T,T,1P TUx9x8UTU1 0]TUU ,-0T-0 y8T0U01y y\UTU0T ,^9P1 9x1T, 09x1T- 0,T1T0- P1,]9 ]x9T1T Ty8y0U01 9x9U0U010T 1T-T0-P Ty9xUT UT1y0U01 TU0U0T10T, T]UT]T1x1 P1T0U0U 0TTU8 0UTU0U0yT 101U001T11 TP0y0 ]y\10U99 y01]T1U0U1 UTy0U\ U]U0xUT1y\ ]y\y1 18y0y01 1\01TUT ]UUx9xU1y x9x]y] 1yY]T ,x0U, tHllP bf]9]9 $xPtPH ,PTyTyx P1x0yxUxx ,TTxx xxUxx tTxTU 0yTyxU (\-0x TQTx1xT x1P,0y, x1P0x1x1xx xTUxT 0Q0yTP1 x1t1xPUTx UxxUy $TPTP (TPT0t0x0P PTTtxT TxTyxTyxTy x0QTP )TPTTt(yTU Q0TPL0,x1, xPTPUPT,tT xTUxxUyxyT 0,x,x,TP0x TTPx0xTy\y yTxTtPTP 00T,T,L0t0 ttTtUPT TxxUt0 xxTxx xUxTx ,P0,P ,,TPTTP0xT Pxxt0tTxTt (,P(,T ,L0,L,,(P, x,x0t0x, 0xPxPTPtTt xy0xUxxTxT TPPTxTtTxT P,L,,U,T0U ,0P,UPUTTU tTxUP0PPLT t,xPxtTxTx 0tUTTUPTUy L,0Q( ,T00,L TPPxTTPP(t (T,(tTPxx0 0tx0t,TP TTxxT P(,T,T ,(P,T,(T,, P0x,0P(,P( Pp,xPx0x1, x0x,TTUx1 TxxTx ,Q(U, (P,p,T,T,1 P(0P(t ,P(,T,,t,x ,PLT,(PTUP x]xUyT T-P(P (P(P( P0,PLP0t1t (P0,(,P,L, L,L,p,L0 ,t1P0PPx,P TxTxx ,P(P,0, (U,P,,1P, (,(,P ,(P,0t0T,0 ,x0PUTPx0t TTxxT )P1P(PT P(1,L0P,L, P,L,L ,L,T, ,x,x0PTxPU tyxTxUxxUx ,)T,P,T,P0 ,,L,TPT,(t ,P,(P (T00P0P(x0 xPxTt T,,(T,,( t(U,0P 00T1,T, (0P(,T,t 1t1,PUT0tT t0tPUTxUTx P,(Q0P( ,P(1t(0P( t0,P(P,P0P (,U0P(P0,L P0P,x1xUPP P0P1, P,,T,L0PTP ,p,xP(,L P(0P0,T,xP P,Txy 0,-xP,0T ,1P0P,(P(, t,L,(, xUP1TTy0xy Tx]xT yx]txTyx]W ,P(T,,L T,TP1P P(T,(Q0,p 0xPxtxxPyT yx\yTy0xUxV ,P(P,, ,P,L, 0P(P0P(t(P x,L,x,x0 TxTxxyT TTyxUxy xTx1xxV L0P0t0 ,L0P,L,0,p ,P0P0,L0,P ,0P(0 ,xy0xUTTxy TxTxTTyT (P0,, L,0P,T,p,x T,(T,(P(, (,P(P 0,L0t0t0t0 1xTxT txUTTxUxxT ,L,L,,L,L, LP0P( P,0P, ,P,t0, T,TUT0x1xx UxUxxUx TxxyTTy P(TPP0,P(, (P(P(,P, Px0PTUUxTx yTxxTx P(P,P (0P,( L,T,L0,(P 0x,xTTP TTxyTxxT TxxUTTyt\ P(P,L, ,(P,0,,L,U ,(Pt(,TPL, 0y0UTtyxTy TyxxUx yxTy0 L,0PL,P ,(0P0 1,P(,t1t0P TT0xTyTxx 0xTxTyxTxT xTxxX ,(P,(, L,P(P(P(TP xPPTxT x,yx]x0W ,L1T, 0,0P(-x,x0 y,xPTxUxTy TUTtxU4 ,,1L,, ,L0PPT0t0P PTPT1t0tTx UxxTUUx4 Q(,TPP(t0T UPTx0xUxx] TxxTx TxxTPxPT P,(,0 ,T,p0P0t0t 0UTx0xxTx 1yTUx Tt1xPTT0 0P(P(P0,p0 tPTPP0t0x0 TxUxTxxTxU x,x1x T,,T,u UTPy1x,xTx PTyTx0xt t1xy0xPT L,,P( P,(x,L1,0 U,0x,0x1xT PTx,y xyxUxTyTtx 0x,x,Z ,L0,P0P0(P ,P1P(P ,xU0T0xxQx x,xTt tTxxTPTy0x\ P,,L0,, UPL,x TPTT,y y0t1xxUxx, PUTUxT_ P),Q0 P(T,L0P0-U ,(x,L0U,0P 0x0x,TtPTU xTxTtTy0t0 ,,P(,,L,,T ,,T,t 0TPLPTPUx0 tyx0xt1xy0 P,(P0,,U0 T,(,T, 0P(0,U0PTT P0UPUUt1PT x-T,0x-Tx0 xUx0ux1xyT T,(P, (P1P,(P0P (T,T,0P0PT T,0,x0T,0, t,x0xUTTt P0P0t0UTT, x0PTQ0x,xT PUx1TPTTQT] 0,P(P P,,P( (0,P0- t0TUT,y ,L1x1t0x0P x0UPx1x0X P0U00U 0P(,0t-0tT ,x,TTt0x,x ,UPTT,0,xP TTP0tf P,T-L0P L,0P(1P0P( 0P0,x,PTUT P1t0y,UPL1 x-T1t0t(xe P,,0P0,T- ,0P(0,P( ,0P(,PLT, T,UTTPT0PT P,x,T,0PPT P0,L0P,0P0 ,(0PTP0u0Q Q,1,P00P0Ph P,(,0P (,U,L0Q0P1 ,T1t0x,1P, 0U0T1t (T,0TUP0T0 ,T(0t,T,(, P0t(o 0P,(, P(0P,(P,x, P0T-0PTPL ,0Q,UT T,L0,LTP]L ,L0P1,- P(T,0P(P -,T,0P,,0P 0P0PP U0P0t T,T1T,,x0- T,U,n P(P0Q0P(,, T,U,x0t(1T ,0y0Tx1yTTl y,,T1 ,U0PTP0,P0 ,T0t0TTUTx P(01P0x0UP P0x,xTy0yx ,T1,P(, U,,L,01P(P x0P1t,x 0UTPUT0v 0,T,(T,0P( P(1P0,P0P 0,L,T,,00T L00P(P0 ,,TTP(x0xU t0yTyTz U0t,U,TPP1 x,xTT p164-4 ftsTitleOverride Primates (page 4) ftsTitle Gorillas - despite their reputation for ferocity - are gentle, intelligent and social animals, living in close-knit family groups. Encounters with neighboring groups are avoided by drumming on the ground from a distance. Old males threaten younger rivals by standing erect and beating the chest, roaring and sometimes tearing up and throwing plants. Primates (4 of 5) The great apes The four species of great ape are man's closest living relatives. The arboreal orangutan, confined to the rain forests of Borneo and Sumatra, is the second largest primate, weighing up to 90 kg (almost 200 lb). Males are much larger and heavier than females, and as they grow old they develop distinctive cheek flaps. Orangutans live alone or in small family groups. Fruit is their staple diet. The chimpanzee is found in Africa, having a relatively wide range in woodland and forest south of the Sahara and north and east of the Zaire River, while the pygmy chimpanzee is found only in Zaire. Like gorillas and man, chimpanzees are largely terrestrial, and both chimpanzees and gorillas walk on the knuckles of their hands. Chimpanzees are intelligent and social animals, using a wide range of gestures and sound for communication. They live in groups of varying composition, sometimes having as many as 50 members. When standing, the male can measure up to 1.7 m (5 ft 8 in) and is strongly built with long powerful arms. They eat a wide range of food, basically vegetarian, but also including insects, birds' eggs, and small birds and mammals. They use sticks as tools to winkle termites or ants from their mounds, hurl stones at intruders, and use leaves as sponges to soak up water. They build nests to sleep in, constructing a fresh one each night. The young live with their mothers for about 3 years. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture \x,,x9T y`]ax 8T,]8 9\]\\ 8T100 $Tx\T\t 01T]T] 1TTUTx\x 8]0]8 T90\UT Tyx0, \\909 ]\0]0 P,P0t ]T8x] T0]\\ \]0T\ \]\]0T1 T00xTT1 \8]090 8U80U0]0Ux $-P8L18 xT0T,$0 ]T=eH 8]0U8\] \y8P0 <]8]a TT9T9\ \]0x] ]\1T18 9\]]8 08]\0 ]\80\\]98 =U]\] \0T0U tPT,T $08]x P-\890 \]\]` 1T8x0 ,\0xTU `Ta`8\8 9t0P0 \\080]\\0T ,p,(tP$ \]00T8T `x\x\ \\0\0 8yaPx 0\]T08 8U\U0 $\T9T HTyx, \\1\]9T9T 1\1\]8T1 0T<T0 a\]U\ U8]T]00 T0U80y t0PTP0P9 8]\\] 01\010U TTxPpPp$tP \TU\x aa\91P U8]88U8 ,U$$U ]8\]8 1\8\] \T0x0 x90x\ T8T]8 x8U8T9 89x9\0]` 0T9T90]0 10]8\9\0 T\\T\0 $,P-,-$, IPP)$H-tQt uttq,uLQ ]T]\]\]\ ]T10T0 TU8\10 U0]9\99 T010]8T <]`]a \1T]x81 1T0U0 T8U\] ]T]\0 T0]0\18 `]0]0 $,$TPH P8t\L ]0T\]\0y ,90T9 T0]\\a \x9T8U\ 08T0]\\a TU,T1, T9P09 \T]T\]\ \\8\981 98T00U\ `]09\ T8y\\9 9]\]99 8]0]\1\8 1\0]\ 0]0]\ 8\8\8UT]\ 8]0]0 P1T1\0U TT9]x\ 09x0]T T0]0x9T9 )8U8T9 \T]\x0 P9T0T] 91T098 18T1\91] \\10\1 0]\T] Lea\a\9T \89\]\ T10\-TT ,xP\Q 9T,9a x]P\]\ 0\UT8 ]\\T] 0TT]0\ y$PT\ 0T0]\ x9T,0 0\x9\ ,\]]\ 8\89x1Ty 9\9-0 (P,xH $T\0]U 1U10yT1U-0 \]0Pa 1x-x] 1]P90 x]T1\0 ,](y19y1 8U\]] ,u8)\0 0-U-U 9yU11 ,y`yxQ 1T1uy y]U91] 9x8],9 0U0U\ P0T98 0TT8x P\8T0 ]\]T\ x\$00]0 T1x]T \|,,t 0x],` T$Q`H Ud0P\Hx 1xe1u] 0T090y T00y\ 0\$P1T0 T\L]Ty\ T$\Tu xTt$$ Y90a: T0x0x aQ0uU 10T0T\ \y8x] Tx,8t ,\H0,x$$ $19L1] 1T]UU 0T00P0 x9P8tTxT \U]U] (,T0T ]U0y1x \\U81 dUTT8 d\U0\9 1\]Qy T]0U\ 1-0QT 0-,]1y tTT0x 0U-\9 ,0P\t T1\y\ \8$9T 1U18Q8 ,T,,(P 1-9P1T L00$P d\U0PU -T9Q1 ]TPUT $8\1T, (T$TP ,UTQ9 ],-YU xUT,$$ P0P18 @(,(0 -8Hy1T )T-x-]T 11,MY T08T\ \P9T9T T1)UQ T,9TU P11\U Px9TU 8yt8$P9 bQ01^ T1U-0 ,LPxP] -T-U- 1U1-5T -1UUP- \,p8P ,,P,,$ `$8MP$ \\909 T]T1T0 a\\0] ]P=], y08T0P 0T,U,-T 1\0y\a ,x18T0T1 L0-1y x0T9T1 \9P\T$9x ,xTx80T0 P]\]y ,x0x\xx0\ $9y`y H0T,0 M--11 ]0T00P P-0]8 ]PH0xT \U0U\x $0T,y 0U\T,Q\ 1U,Q, T0TQTT] P,x]T9 T]\1x Q`-8\] 8\]\8 $]T0x xTxU\\x 0x9\d0]0] ,U80\ \xeyP $dT$\ 0U\U9 8U8U8 U01T] 8xTT0 ]0U8U ]0x9TU $0P,x81T ]tT$`TT U0U9, P0P`x0 aT]]1\\ y0x01x 1x\T\\x T\18t 0Px0U, aT0]\ ,T,UT 1T]T0 T8x8u 0xeTTx t\y\T4 90y0xeP \M\\1]81 T0y\x, P00,$ 0x-xU$ U0UPT x8T]8U\ T]x00 0y89T TT\0]9 ,P0TTt1T1U tPU0$ ]x0T0T P`P0T,TT 08]\\ax 0$aU, PT0U, T0U8U xU\0T Tt`P0T 0x1T0 0\T8T$y 0]0U\1 $ux,T8 TPTPL ,\1]09 0T00T $T\10 8P,0TT 1\90U TaP,T0 1`0t] T9\(TP \]\00y \Tx$= d$0U8H 0xx0T ,T,U8U x9,x0 U0x1T0 T8U0\0 ]x9\U x0T,9 u8x]x8T 0T\y81 8xad\ ta\\U0U8 aT1t81010 0U\y8 x$P,x$H ](U0x H8y0P 8U\], b\-\x dU8-T (0T\TT U90]\ x00,x0 ]\]x\0 T0\1] ,0,U0x\uP U\1\x8 ,$0xe 0U8x00 xT\]T TTt0T 8Q0T0 $00]098U t8,\T \x9T0 T00T0 $,,T1 $0t0U 0U\T0T0TT 0,0T\ 8xTU0,09 T1T8] T0T,T T010T]x ,T0,x,T 180\90T1 U0]0T90 0T\U\ 0U01\, e]8]0 UT4\- 8\0U`x t]0U8 U1T,0 T0x0x \90]\ L9P0TP a\x]T (T0T\x 9x18y8x tTP\T0 P]T]T 0U0U00P] T0T0PU\ T00U8T 0P0T1 T0U0\] a\,]\ P\8x8 x0T00 ,U0T1TeT 0TTU0 P0,T00xTT\ $0U8]\T1 ,T8T\x 00T00 8x8x] ,T\Tx P]PTT x\U0P ]T]TT ]U0T98 10U9T 0]0]\ 1T,P0 \U0x8 ]\\U00\ 8\00P1P)8 1T]U0 (,T00TT (U\]] x$\P] ]0T0Tx98, 9`1\9 1\T9\\ 0T1\U0 0TT]T18T t]\\]\ 090U0 u9p,\,] 1P\U0P $L,tUx 0U0y, y]\-\T 8U\0Tx x\UdL ,]0TTU ]TUT0 p164-5 ftsTitleOverride Primates (page 5) ftsTitle Young gorillas living in the mountains in Rwanda sit with their mother and frolic and play. Primates (5 of 5) The largest of the primates is the gorilla, found in the forests of the Zaire basin, with isolated populations of mountain gorillas on the slopes of the mountains between Rwanda and Zaire. When standing they are not much taller than large chimpanzees, but they are much more heavily and powerfully built. A male gorilla may measure up to 175 cm (70 in) around the chest and weigh up to 275 kg (605 lb). Although females and young gorillas climb trees, males rarely do so because of their size. Gorillas live in family groups of 12 to 14 with a 'silverback' (a mature male) at the head. Gorillas are almost exclusively vegetarian in their diet; like chimpanzees, they build a nest each night to sleep in. * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * EARLY MAMMALS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * PHYSICAL EVOLUTION (HUMAN) * HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText WTN.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "WTN" defaultPage fName %.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Gorillas frolic and play. ,,,PVWWP,,QX|Q,,VW{ V,+,PW VQ|||X|QXQR{WQQWXPQPWW ,VPVQQWQ,&,WWQ,, W,PW{ WVW,,,,W{WP,,QQQQ,,W{ V+,PW WWQW{W |RQ|XQXWWQQWWP,WW WW|QQ,,PQQ,, VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV WW|W| WWW{X{ WP,P,,W,,-P,,QP, ,VVPW W{WW{ 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W,,,,,,-Q,&P&&&,-,+,+&,QQ,&''-QRQ'-'&-RQ-''W{WW,Q {|W|{ WVP,+%, PWVWWW +,PV3PWWWWWWWPWWQW WPVWWWW ,VVVVV,,,,,P,WQW|{ |WWQW WQVQQWQWQWRWQWRWRQ,QQQWQQWQ,,&,JQWR,,,P,%,,,, W,++,+,Q&,&&-&++%+PW ,,PWQ,&Q-''&-'''-K-Q&&,QWWQW VWVVWVW |WW|{ |W|WPW{W WWW,,% +,WVW ,+,QPQWQWQQWQWQWWWW,WWQWP,VW ,P,WW{{W{X{ |WQ,,WWWWWQQPXQ|QQQQQQQQQQ-QR,,QQWQ,%,&-QQQ,,,Q,,P, W,+,,%,Q,&,&&,&+ WW,,,PW{-&-K''-'','''QQ-&&QW{|P-V|V VWVVVVVVWW WW{W|{ VVVWVV ,+,+, PVQVPV, ,VWWWW{X{W| PVWVQ-,VQWP,Q-PQ,&,&WQ+,,P,,,+%+, ,+++,WP ,++++, ,%,+,%,%+%2WP+,QWWQ,K,&,&,''&,,,,,+%2WWVWVQW |WQ|W|W| WVVVV P++,,++,VWWV V,%,+,,++ ++++,QVW WQWW{W|{| |WQVV WW,,PQ,WQ,P,-,,&&&,,,,,P,%,, %+,,,+%+, %,VVVWWP,+, %+,,+,,,+% +%WV,,,PQWQ-&,&&&&'-&&,,P,+%W W,WWV W{W{| {QQW{WW{ W{W{WWW p166-1 ftsTitleOverride Animal Communication (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Submission to a dominant individual within a social hierarchy may be signaled by particular postures. Within a wolf pack, submission is indicated by a crouching posture, with ears held back and tail between the legs. ` H Animal Communication (1 of 4) The roar of a stag and the faint whiff of a scent, the flash of a brightly colored wing and the complex speech of humans - these are all means of communication. They are signals produced by one individual, the signaler, and they carry information about the state of the signaler to another individual, the recipient. The signal is intended to broadcast in formation about the signaler's present state. The meaning of the signal to a recipient depends on the recipient's status. To a neighboring male the territorial song of a bird reveals the presence of a rival, possibly to be challenged. To an unmated female the same song indicates a potential mate, while a mated female ignores it. Functions of communication A major function of communication is to bring the sexes together for reproduction. It is the means by which the species, sex, reproductive state and sometimes even the particular individuals concerned are identified. Courtship often involves complex displays in which one or both partners posture and perhaps call to each other. Such displays enable partners to learn to recognize each other and to assess each other's suitability as mates. Communication is also important in spacing out animals, in marking territorial boundaries, and in establishing a position in a hierarchy through aggression and submission. Size or pitch of voice may indicate competitive status, as may the possession of weapons such as antlers. Submission is often signaled by particular postures. Defense against attack by rivals or predators often involves intense or sudden signals. Mammals often let out loud low-pitched roars or screams when threatened. Rabbits and deer use tail flashes to warn others of impending danger, while birds use various kinds of alarm call. Vervet monkeys use different alarm calls to indicate different predators, such as snakes, eagles and leopards. Unpleasant-tasting or poisonous animals such as wasps and snakes often indicate their unpalatability by adopting bright warning coloration, typically black, with bands of red or yellow. Information on food sources may be communicated through transmission of the odor or taste of the food from a successful forager to other members of the group. This method is used by both bees and rats. Bees also transmit information about food sources through complex dances. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * TOUCH, TASTE, SMELL * SEEING AND HEARING * THE POWER OF SPEECH * BODY LANGUAGE (HUMAN) * HOW LANGUAGE WORKS * THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture yUx19 1y1]] Ut:y] 9ZU11 1U1U^ :U1V921 1^11y1 9U1U:1 -Y119 1]:1:^ 1U11]1 1U1U1^] 1:-]1 U21:1 >:-9 1^1]1 5U111111 :U119 1^1^1 ^:U1:U 9V1]2 1U:11U1 11UU,1-1 ]^11U 111U11 1:y91 U1^1:92 1111^ ^1^1: :19:U 11U1U 1111U9 929U1 :1^: ^1U::^ yu)1L 1^1:U ]P]y] -1U1: x9x]y] TUy]xy 1-U]yT] ,1xy\ y1x1x9 Uy0yPT 1xt1T] y0yTUUPxe TyTy1x] ]xyUT t9u0U] PP(TPU\] 9y]tyU 19y0y x]uTUxt-01P? 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0yUP1-UT1y, \UTU0]P, TyU-U yUT]y0y 01U01y1U1y]y T9y8y1 )P1,1U0y1y1y] y1UUU-UTU11,-1,1T1010Q1-,-, Q-0Q0U0y 0y1y0U0Q,P, 1yTyT]y y]yTy 1x]y]y 1xUyTyyT UT1T1 1x]x1y 1xUTU U0U0yUT1yTUT Q0Q0-10UU T]y]yU 0yTy01-P1U,1TU T1U10Q0U1U0UU1U101U-1P10 0-T1011y1 1x9yTU]UUU10y\y 0U]x1x] UxUT] y1xUTU UTUUTUy U0UTU0 T-TUQ1T Ux1TU]T 10y9U 1-10U10U0y1y 0U]x1y1U1U,T -,U110yy9y] UT1U,1U10Q0Q 0U1U0y1T1T1,U0U,U-110Q0U11yT ]]U]y9y11Q0 UxyTy y]yU\ 1P9Q0P UxUx1UTx1x1Uxy0y,0,( M01T1T]x] UT]U018 UU]U\yTUT1x] T1T10U10U]U\yU\y9 ]x1y0y0U0-1P1-1T1UU]U UTU]UT1P1,U0-0P1 0P-1U0-P1 0-0-,-0Q0U-0U1U y9y]y] 1x91T y0UUT]U UT,-0y1Ty]xUU,U1P 0Q01U10y 1UTU10yU]U]]xU y]yY1 1y1y1UU,1-T, TUTU1P11T--0Q1P -P-1-, 0U010y8y] Uxy9y 1xy]x1y\yy y1x1y 1T]y0yTy ]yT]UU1T, y\Ux1xT11T1]TU1 1T1U011U0U1TUUTU]U]y] 1y]U1T1U0U1P U-TUU\ UUT-1Q P1U,U- T1y1yT y]y]y] \y]x]y0y1 T1yTU ]U]UU\yUx] U]UU0UUx1y0 p166-2 ftsTitleOverride Animal Communication (page 2) ftsTitle Chemical signals released by animals to affect the behavior of members of their own species are commonly known as pheromones. Among many uses, they serve to mark trails, to indicate territorial boundaries, to signal alarm and to attract sexual partners. Such signals can be perceived with extraordinary sensitivity: some male moths, for example, use their antennae to detect the pheromone released by females over distances of several kilometers. Animal Communication (2 of 4) Communication signals The form of communication signal differs depending on the information to be conveyed, the distance over which it has to travel, and the habitat of the animals concerned. Chemical signals depend on the sense of smell and sometimes the sense of taste. Such signals can travel over long distances if carried on wind currents, but can only be perceived downwind. They may be used for long-term signaling, as when mammals such as hyena and deer mark their territory, while the food trails left by ants are a form of short-term signaling. Specific chemicals that have particular effects are called pheromones. In honeybee colonies, for instance, the queen produces a pheromone, 'queen substance', that prevents the ovaries of the worker bees developing. Pheromones serve a wide variety of other purposes, and are particularly important as sex attractants. Acoustic signals can change very rapidly in pitch and intensity, and so can be used to convey a wide range of information. They also travel very fast and in all directions from the signaler, and are easy for the recipient to locate. The intensity of the signal - and hence the distance it travels - is enhanced by some ingenious devices. Mole crickets construct a horn-shaped burrow that increases the sound produced by the cricket some twenty times. Howler monkeys, and some birds, frogs and toads have large vocal sacs that amplify the sound made by the animal. Because low sound frequencies travel further than higher ones, large animals such as whales and elephants use very low frequencies - below the human hearing range - to communicate over long distances. Sound travels especially well in water, and the songs of baleen whales can travel over hundreds of kilometers. Some whales and dolphins emit a wide variety of whistles and squeaks. Hump back whales produce songs that generally last 10 minutes, although songs up to 30 minutes long have been recorded. The songs probably help to keep groups of whales together and to aid cooperation between them. Visual signals are used by many different animals. They can be turned on and off very rapidly, but can generally only be used in daytime and are easily blocked by objects such as trees. Visual signals are often bright or consist of jerky movements to make them conspicuous. One of the claws of the male fiddler crab is enlarged and brightly colored, and is waved in a characteristic way to attract females. The bright colors and patterns of butterfly wings and of many male birds attract mates over short distances, while bowerbirds build special mating areas to attract females. As they fly at night, male lampyrid beetles produce flashes of light in characteristic patterns to which the females on the ground respond with their own flashes. Females of a different species mimic these responding flashes, and then eat the unsuspecting males as they fly down to mate with them. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * TOUCH, TASTE, SMELL * SEEING AND HEARING * THE POWER OF SPEECH * BODY LANGUAGE (HUMAN) * HOW LANGUAGE WORKS * THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture xUxP0t1P xUTy0Q xQT-P)t1 Tyt1PP U-T,- xxTtUTP- UPyPytLU, ,yUxPxP ]xTxx,y,T- xUtTPTQ, ]yxQx,yx, yTxTxxPU, 0uTy0P-L Qxt), UtTx0y,L 1y0yTQ, 1xxUtPpPT yTT0U, TyxPUP TP1x1TT00- xPyTxyP( Tx-U, 0U,Q0x 0uTP-TP xxPTP 0UT0TT Py0y0U PUPU, 1x1xx1 $1U,) yTxyTxtTQP xTtyTTP Ttx1, xxTyxT1P UxxPytU yUxx1 UxPTP Uxy1y TyxtyTQ -0x10Q, Tt0T, ,x-0u U1xU0$ x0PU,P TtQ(P Ty,1P- Uyxy,-T 1x,L0 TxxQT,- xUxTUT- T,M,, 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Grooming of one individual by another, as seen in these Guinea baboons, serves to strengthen bonds between family members and partners - as well as helping to remove unwanted parasites. Animal Communication (3 of 4) Tactile signals can only be used close at hand, while vibration signals are operative only over short distances. Male orb-web spiders indicate their presence to females by vibrating their webs in a characteristic way, thus dissuading females from treating them as prey. Male water striders make ripples on the water surface that are detected by the antennae of recipients - rival males and potential mates. Mole rats bang their heads against the roofs of their underground tunnels to communicate with both rivals and mates - a method also employed by tunneling insects, such as deathwatch beetles. Electrical signals are used by some fish that live in muddy rivers in South America and Africa. These signals can pass through solid objects and are used aggressively and in courtship, as well as for purposes of navigation. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * TOUCH, TASTE, SMELL * SEEING AND HEARING * THE POWER OF SPEECH * BODY LANGUAGE (HUMAN) * HOW LANGUAGE WORKS * THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture xUP1tT UTyxx yPUxPxy PPu(PQ UyTUU1 ,(u,PQTQLU TyHPy]x ,yPytU -(Q,x- pUTQT- T-0tU UtTyTP1xT U0t)p1P TuTuT H1TPQT-p Qx1-1 ,,yTty (PMPM )t1x,u LPQ,p, 0tq,L-tP UTut1 TyPUP PQxPPLt- M,LQt -(t(u, P(QT-x -tTyx-(UPQ LUPx1xT QPQTPUT u(QLt xt1x0 xyPt) tPuTy UPUyy PQP1P-( L-,LP-P), L1TPPM PU,tM010U yPyP) ,yxuxy PPTUxU x-UTt UyTP,$ L-P)P ,p,t)t) ,x-LU PUyPM ,UP-T 0yxPy 1tP-y $,MTP -P)t)PQT, $-,--( 1tPPxu(x 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U11U1,yUx y\yTt UtUTy TU-T1 1UxUt1UUy 1P)PPy0tT- 0UxPx ,,QxU yx,QQ 0y,xUyU TxQTxPx-x QxUUxUyPU PPpUxyT TyUx]xU T-TyUP1U: ]x-t1 L]yy\ UtUyt TU,UUtUyx1 1T-LT uUxUx 9UTyy Tx1yU TQ1yPH-u y0y,yT-T 0tPTUtyy UyUt]txU yUtyxx0u 1$,yT u0y1y UyTyT TxPQ\U-PP UTx1xy UxUT- Ty]x]x U,LQUPy UT1PU ux-pU x1yxxT p1,tU y01x1xQx x,yUP -TPyTy xUx,Qt] yTU,-x ty,yPUx,- y0TUxy PM,PT1 t,UPuUx1y t,LQT y1xQ1 L11QQ y1-0u -,x1T uy5U0t ,x-LTx P-01T1PT TUQT- -,QUU xyU,T-, TQTUTx PU,P- T-x--x1Uy QTU-yT 1UUT1t1, y\u1y,y ]U,-, ,uTyU ]xUQ\Q0 -U0UUT 1x1UT-U p166-4 ftsTitleOverride Animal Communication (page 4) ftsTitle A stonefish. As if its camouflage were not sufficient, the stonefish has a second line of defense: it has highly poisonous spines in its dorsal fin, which are erected if the fish is disturbed. Animal Communication (4 of 4) CRYPSIS, DECEIT AND MIMICRY To avoid being eaten, some animals attempt to deceive potential predators. In order to remain inconspicuous, certain animals are cryptic, blending in with their background by using various types of camouflage. For example, stick insects and praying mantises show extraordinary likenesses to leaves and twigs. Some toads adopt the color and patterning of stones, and the larva of the swallowtail butterfly looks like bird droppings. Other animals startle predators by sudden displays. Many moths open their wings to reveal owl-like 'eyes', while the snake cater pillar extends its front end to mimic the head of a snake. A fulgorid beetle has false eyes and antennae on the rear of its body, and so appears to run backwards when attacked. The bright warning colors of distasteful species such as wasps are sometimes mimicked by species such as hover flies, which are themselves harmless. This is known as Batesian mimicry. There must never be too many mimics, however, or the predator would not readily learn to avoid the brightly colored, but generally distasteful, animals. Sometimes distasteful species come to mimic each other, so that if the predator takes one species, it then avoids all the others. This is called Mellerian mimicry and occurs in some butterflies. DO ANIMALS HAVE LANGUAGE? To qualify as language, a communication system must be symbolic and must be able to denote abstract ideas, as well as things and events that are distant in time and place. It used to be thought that language was an exclusively human attribute, but some animal communication systems show features in common with language. The 'dance language' of bees is a well-known example. When a worker bee has found a good source of food a hundred meters or so from the hive, she returns to the hive and performs on the vertical comb a dance in the form of a flattened figure of eight. The worker waggles her abdomen to and fro as she marks out the figure, and each waggle is accompanied by a burst of sound. The further away the food is from the hive, the slower the rate at which the bee dances; the more intense the waggle and the sound, the greater the food supply. The angle at which the straight part of the dance is performed indicates the direction of the food source. The top of the comb is equivalent to the position of the Sun outside, and the dance is performed at the same angle to this vertical position as the food source is to the Sun. The dance is therefore symbolic, and codes for the direction, the distance and the abundance of the food source. Another example of possible language in animals is the controversial attempts to teach chimpanzees and gorillas to communicate with humans using speech or symbols. All attempts to teach chimps to talk have failed because they do not have the necessary vocal apparatus to produce sounds as we do, but attempts to teach them to use sign language have been more successful. A young female chimp called Washoe was taught well over a hundred symbols of the American Sign Language used by deaf people. She learned to use the symbols in the appropriate contexts and to string them together to indicate, for example, 'gimme sweet' or 'come open'. Another chimp, Sarah, was taught to use colored plastic symbols to represent words, and could answer questions with the appropriate symbols. These tests show that chimps can certainly learn to use abstract symbols to indicate objects and actions, but how far this - or the dance language of bees - can be equated with human language is an area of continuing debate. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * TOUCH, TASTE, SMELL * SEEING AND HEARING * THE POWER OF SPEECH * BODY LANGUAGE (HUMAN) * HOW LANGUAGE WORKS * THE LANGUAGE OF SIGNS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ]1U2^1- U2U1-x 1x1UU0 ]0U01P 1U11] ]Y:]:a yUVy-- 1yUx] ,---T y-1T1T U1118 TQU1^1- 19U0Ub -,-\y011Q2 T1y9y99bUf 1-10U UU1U1 ,UP(U: 1x0U9 Y9y9^b 11U1^: x-Y1xTP Q:UV: 1V1\] 1-y2u Uy-11]\U- ]U10- y:u)T: 1]TP-y0U9 1UyYb -:p,U 1T1U0 9]]91 y:yY]y ,Q11Q1P 1TUy9 1]9\y8 5:y0$ ]x1U: -y1]]UU U1bU5UU 9U8U1T ]U,1: 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]191]1^ 99Z9^9]9]919]9 99]1U91U8- T1]19 :]Z]9 9^9::] 1]01U 991U1 ::^:9 111]1U9T19 5U91U1T 9U1]9U ]1911 1011) 0U8y9y0U011T1y811T91T11\11T91 ]1]9U]] 9]9]9]1]1]9 9]9]9 9^1^9]]] 9U:]9^9]9U9]1 9]:]9^9]9U1 U1]1U ]:]9]9] 9]9]1T9 9]]]:] 9U9]9U9 ]9]11 9]1U1 1]]]9]91 19U9U U1U-T1- 1U]]] 1\9U]TUU 9UTU1T1U8U1\UU8U1T1 T1]1U U1P1] p168-1 ftsTitleOverride Territory, Mating, Social Organization (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Penguins usually return to their mate of the previous year, and each parent takes it in turn to incubate the eggs. After their initial rearing, the chicks join groups of their contemporaries in communal creches, usually presided over by a few adults. Territory, Mating, Social Organization (1 of 3) Animals interact with other members of their own species in a wide variety of ways. Some animals, such as hamsters, are largely solitary in their behavior, only coming together to mate. Other animals form groups of varying size and structure: shoals of fish are essentially loose aggregations of individuals, while in primate groups, for instance, roles of social dominance and subordination can be recognized and there is often division of labor. Whatever the social organization, it may be necessary - in order to obtain sufficient food or shelter - for one or more animals to keep a particular area for their sole use and to keep out other members of the same species. An area in which vital resources are defended in this way is known as a territory. Territory Territories may be held by any number of animals: hamsters and mice, for in stance, hold their territories singly, gulls in pairs, hyenas, lions and prairie dogs in larger groups. While many animals, such as robins and badgers, hold large multipurpose territories for feeding, mating and rearing of young, other territories are used for one purpose only. Male sage grouse and Uganda kob, for example, gather in traditional mating grounds called leks, where each male defends a small mating territory. Females are attracted to the leks and prefer to mate with males holding particular territories, often those in the center of the lekking area. Colonial nesting gulls feed at sea and so defend an area around the nest solely for the purpose of bringing up their young. Many animals patrol the boundaries of their territories regularly and attack any intruder, using various signals to indicate their possession of a territory. A territory is only worth defending if the benefits - in terms of food obtained or young successfully reared - outweigh the cost in time, energy and potential injury. The golden-winged sunbird, for instance, defends a territory containing its food source, nectar from Leonotis flowers. The energy it obtains from the flowers just exceeds that used in feeding and in de fending the territory, so the bird makes a small net gain in energy. * ANIMAL GROUPS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * MIGRATION * HUMAN SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ?_?_ ; _ [^^^_^_^__^_: :;^^^ ^_::_^_^_^_^ : ;^^:; : : : :_; c_^_b_^: :_^c: ;^_b_ : : : b^_^^_: :_:^: ;b^_^:; :^_^_:_:_: ;^:;^:;^:_^; :_^_:^:;^::^ ::_:^2V:^::;^; ;^_^;^:_:^ :_^:; :_^_^;: ;:^__:_^^_^? >_:__^;b;:_; ?_:;_:^;^?: :;^;:_;:^_^;: ;^;c^_:^;^;:_^^; ;^:;^;:_:;^_^ :^; _> :b_^;: :b;^_b__ :^^_^_:c b; : : _> >_:^:; ;^ ; :__b_c^;b: :_: >_^_^c: > ;_^;: :; : _b_ :c^? ?_c^c_b__;b_^_^_ ; ::_:^:;^:;^::^; ?: _;b_; ;^_c;^?: >_:::_:;^:;^: b_^;^: : : >_^_:_::;^;::_:;^;::Z^:2^2^:::^: :c^^? :_::;^: ;b__ ;?^;^::^;:^::_^?^;:_ :c^_: ?^_^;^:_^;?^: ;_b_^__^__::_::_::;^;::^:^::;:^:^; :^_?^ ^_^;: :^;^_:^^_:^_^_^:: ::^:^:^ ^; ;^_^c^_:^; : ; ; _: : >_c:^;b_ ; ; >__b_c: : b;^ :_ ; ; > ;b_^? 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;_ :;? ;_; _;;c; >___;__? ; ;; ;? ?: ;^;_:;: ; ;_? ?; ?^;^? ;_ ;_ ; ;^? ? _c^_:^_^:;_>_^_:?^;^_ ;:^:;^: ;b_c_ ? ?__b;b__? ; ; ; ? ; ? ;:^V1 2^:^;^ :;:^;:;^_c^?: : : ;^ :_ ; ? ; : ? : ; ?_c: : ;^ :_?; ;b;c^? ;_c_b; ;^?^; :_:^_^; : ^;::_:^; :_>^;c^_ ;^^_:: ::;^;:_^c^_: >_::;_:^:;^^_ ;:_:;^;: :_>__?^;:;:_: ;:_:::^;^:_:;^;:_: ;_:;_:_:__:;^;^;:_:_:^;^_^:_:6^_^; ;^?_c^; :__;? :_^;^_b_;c__^c^__^; ; ; >_:_; ;_c_;c_c;?_c; ? ;c ? ?_:_c; _; :;^__c_^c:__^; ; : ;_:_c__c; ;_ ; ; ;;c_c_c_:_:;: ?:_;^_^;;^; :;^;:?:_ ?:_:;^:;^;__>_c_ ? ;;b;; :c__:c^c ? ; ? ; ; ; ; :;::_:^:: ^:2^:^::^ ;^ ;^; ;^;: ;^ ; ? >^_ : : :c _^_b:;b;: ?_:__ ;b_ ^ _cc_ ; ; : ;^ ;b_b_^; : : :_ ;:_:?: : ; >;^:_:^_:c_^;:;:_:_:;_:_:; ;^;^; :_:_^: : :;^;:;^;:;c:^;;_ :_:;:^: :^2:^::^:^:2 ;:^;^:;:^;_;: :;^;_^_;::_:_: ::_:;^;::_:_;^;^;:^:_:;; ;:;^:: ::_:: ;:^; ;^?:_ ; ;_? >;_b__>_;_c^? ?^;c: :c: ;>;_c_? ?_:_: > : :_ ?; _^_^c^c_b; ;^; ;c; ; ; ;c_c_ ; ? ?^;c_b_^;^_: :;^c_: >;^; ;^ ;:;^^;^;_> ;^ :_:c^c_c ;? ?;; ; ;c;? ; ; ; ? ; ^?:;^:_:: :^;^^_:; : ; : ?^_^? 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:^;^_^: ;^;__^; :_;^c_;c^_ ? ?_:__:_:___? :c;b;^; ?_c_^_b; ?_ ;; ;_ ; ;c_b_^; :c^^;c: :c::;: : : :_^^:62^ 2^Y:U:1 U ;;^:^::: :2:^: 2:1^29V929V2: 2:2:V:V:_:_;^_c; ;;^;;__^;: ;_> :;_:_;;:_;^;:;_:_:_:; U12^: ^:_:_:_:_:::V2^ ^2^2:2^:;^:_:^;:^2U : :_ V::;:^;;^_::^;c: ;_;:c; ; ;c; ?^_c^c; ; ; ;_c^__^;: :^_c_b_^ ; ;^;_^_c_c^ : _c_ : >_^_ :_::_:_c;:_::_: : ;::^:^2^: :2:_^? c_^; ;_c; ?^ :? ?_:; ;: ? :_:;:^;^_^; ;c:;: :;_:;^2^2 ?^;^:: 22:;:2 V2^:;^:;:_:;^; Y:^:_;: :c:_; ; :; : :_^:: ;c;_^c;^; ; ;^ ; ;cc^c^; ; ; ; : ; ?;^ ;b_b ; _b_b; ?^c;^: ::_^_ :^c_^; 1Vc;b2^:^:: 61^2: 2^:^:;_:;:_;^;b; _^_:_;^;:;:_:__c^;?^;;^:^2Y 2:2YU 1]1^:^_^::^2:2 ^::^;^;^:^_::; -:^^_::_?_: ;;; ;_ ;;^:^:;^:^;:_;__;_:_ ; ; _c_c; ; ;b? ?; ;c__;_; ; :_ ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ?;^;^; ?^_:;:_cg_^c^::V: 2_ :_::Z:^:2^2 2:V:2 6::^;:c_b; ?: ;: ? ?_ :;^? ?__^;c_^ : ;^?^;_>_:_?:_: c:;2^22 6Y:c;:; 2:_::_^;:;::_:V1 ---1-- :;^ :^;:^;^:;: ^^_:;^::_:^:::2^::;^^c;_c :_ :; ; ; _c; ; ; ;c_c; _; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; >_ c^ _b_cc_c_::V 12:Y]2 ::^:^:^:^:^ 2^2^:2__^;_:_ ;_ ;_: ; : :^b: c_;c;;: ;__c;; ;^? 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_;c:; ; :: :^_c ; _c;_; _:_:^;: ^ ;? ; ; ; ; : ; _ _? > ; ; ;^; ; ;c^_ ;^; ; _ ?_?_? :V:Y29VY ;:^:::^:: 2:V:2 6:^;: :; ;b;; ; :^;: :^;:;^?:; :c;:_:_:^;::_::_:; ;c;: :2::U: :Y:::^;::: : ;c__:_:_:V:Y V:V:^ ?; ?_c ? ?; ;__b;_2U ; ;_:: :;:^;c:_ ; ;> _;; :? ;:; ; ; ? ?^; _ ::^2:V 2^::^;^2 ::^;:^_c_:___:_;__c^_:;:_: :_: ;c:;:U : _;:;^;:_;^;_:c_:_:c:_:^2V ^:::^:^: :^:^:^2^ 2:U:V: -:_;:_:_:; ::V21 11^:^2:1 ?_; ;c_;^2 ^? ;? ; ; ;c; :_ ::_ ; ; : ;: ; ;^:;:;: 62]2] 2U:U2 2^;::^:; ^::^:2: 2^:2:^2:^:_^;;^ ;?^_c; ? ; _ :__> :__^;^ :;;:^;^;:_: :;:_;^;: ; ;::^2:2] 9:^Y: :^_::^:2 ;c__^? ;:V:Y V:2::V1-- :^; ;c? ; ; ? 2: ;c ? ; ? ;:_:_:_:;^: ?_ ; ; :_:^:^;b_>:^2:YU2 2:^;^:^::::^:V: :^2:2: 6^2;:_:_;::__c; :_:c:; ; ;_:_:^;^? ?^ ;___:_:;;^;^;^;:_;_;:_:V: :Y^2^Y: 2:^:;^2 :_:;c;_?^^2^2 12^:1 : ; _c_c? ?_c; ; ; _c ; ;b_b_^;^c_ ; ;c:_b_b_c:;^; ; ; ? ; c; : _c_c_ ; ;^:::^:^:^::2: 2^:::^:_> ;c_c;^_? ;b_c_ ?; ;:^1 _;;^;?: ;c;^? :_;>_:_:^::2 2:V::: ^^^^: :::U^2^::^; ; _?; ;:2:2 ? ; ;c::^1 :?_?_? ; ; ; :_>_c _c : _b_ ^c^^?_ ; ;^? ;::^::^2 :VY62 6:6^2^;:; ;_ ;_? :_?_;c_c;:c; ;_ 2 :;^;_:_;:_:;;c;_>; :^^^: ::^2- :Y^9^Y::U: :;^:V::2 :c;; c; :V 1-11::V1 Vc; ; cC cc_c_?_c; ;?_c_ ? _c_c _ _ ;? ? ; ; ? ; ;b;^>_^^_ ; :^;^_^::^:^::2 __:_::^:V::^:^: ::;^:_?_? ?__c;_?c;> ;c_c;_c; ; ;^;;:_;:_:_;^;;;_;c;;;:__^; ::^:::^2 ^;; ;; _:2^2^1 ? ;_ ?_c U1V:V 62:_:: :_ ; _c__^? ?_c_c_ ?;; ; ; ; > :_^_^; :: ;^_b_^_ ;:^:^::^:::V: :VY2:Y2: 6:2:V:^:__:; ?;; ;c_c_? ?_cc; c;c_c2 ^;_:_;;_;;^;:^:^;^;;^;^;^;^:62 6:^2: ;c ? :^V2 ; ;_ :2 1-21^: 6^:_:_? ?_c; ;; ;^;c_c_c ; ?_ ;? :; : ^ : : :; ^c^^;: ::^:^:2:Y: _c;^:^:2:^2^: :V:1:V: :^::_:_ ;c^c ;; ? ?_; ;_ ;c__; ;? :;:^;:^;;^;:_2_::;:^:^;:_:^_ ::^:_::^: :2^2: ; ;:2: :^:;__^__: ;c_c_c ;^; ; ;^ ? ; :c^c ; c^ ? ; : ; ; ;c :V:2 2U2]2 :^:^2^2: 6:V:2^::^:_c: :;_:;^;_; ; ;: ; ; ; c_c;;_:V ^:^;^:_:^::^;::W:^:W:;^:::_:: 22U2V :U1^: b; cC ;^6 ; ; ; :2 2: ; ;?;_ _ :_;:_> ?__c ; ;_ ; ? ; ; ;_ ; ; ; ; ; ; ; _^:: _b_;^:^ 6:::^:2 ::2^2;c_?^;^_^; ;: :_^;c:_::_:;:; :_>;:1 :2V:^2_::3^:;^:_:_:_: 1^9:Y:U: ;::^::: ; ?_ ? ;_ ;bc 2:^;:: ; c:_;? ; ?_^:_:; :c_ ? ; _c_ ? ? ; ; ? _c_>^2^:VY:Y 11U1^ ]:U]: :^::^2: :2:^:^::_^_ ;; ; ;?_:_;:_> ; :_:^_^;^:_^:V :^:2^^:;^:;:_:::_: :^^^: :]:Y:U:1U::^;^:V:^:6V:2: ^cg_? ? ;c__:V 6V:^;^; ;>_ ;> ; ;_ ;? ;?_c ; ; ; ; ? _c_c ;12Y::2 :Y^Y9 ; :;^:^: :V:2^:c;:_ ;c__ ; ; ;_ ;b; ?^; ;?^; : :^;:;^;;^;^:_;^;^:Y ^_^:::^2: 2c;c ?_^: ;; ; >2 V::::__c;_;__? ; ? ; ?;c_c ; c ; ? ; ; ? :; ; :_: c_ ? c^^:^:2^:2^:: :Y2^2: :^2::2^:; ?;; ; :;^;^;^:V:;^;> 2U::_:_:^?^;;:_:::V2 ::_:^2^: Vg? ; _:22 ?_ ;c__:U :^; ; ; ;c ;^? ; ; ? ?_c_ ? ?__^; ?_^;;^? 2^2:V ::_:::^:: 6:2V:Y: :;^c;_c_ ;_:_: : :_^_;>_;;>_:; 2U::_;^:__:;^;_:;^:V:Y :V92V :^^^^::: 9V9V9 :;:^:^2^2 C ?;_: 1: ? ; ; : 22:V:: ? ;c_ ; ; ;^; ? ; ;c__? ? ; ; :_:^ ; ?_:_ ; : ; :^2U: 2:^::: 2:2^:2:^; ;c_c;; ; :;;^:_:^__> : :__b;^ ^:?^;_:_c;; : ;^::V21 2:^^:b^^ :U:U921 ^:_:^::::2 ; ? c _c; c: :^; ; ? ?_c; ; :_;? ; ; ; ?C ; ? ? ; ; ; _c_c_? ; : ;Y1^2 2]2^2U :^::: 12^Y:^ :V:^;^:_; ; ; ^;>^;^:? ; ?^_;b;_: :_:c;_:c:;_b:^2:U:V ::^:: :::^2^ 1^ ; ?^2:V ? ?_^1 2:2: ? ; ;c ;c; ? ?c;_c_g _? ? ; ; ; ? ?_cg;c_c_c ; ; ?:V:2Y: : ;>_::^ 6:2:: 6:6^:: ;: ; ; ;; _? :^:2^; : > ;c_c^:U Y2:^?^_;_^?; ?_?_ 2^ U21::^^b^^ :^ _:^;V:^2:2^ : ?g ::V ; _2 :^; ; ;cg^;; _ : _ ? ? ;c ; C ?_c_cg_cg_c_c_ ? ?_ _c ; _c_c _b:2 2^2:Y 6:^2Y Y:V:2: ::_:;^;:_:?_ ;_c: ;:_:;^;^;:_:_; ;b;^ 2^: ;>_:;_c;? ;^:22^ ^2^^^: ;^:::^2 ; ? V:V::; ? ?_:_?;^? ; ;c; ; ? ?_cc ? ? cc_ ? ?; ;^2 2:YV2 ;b;^:^2 :2^:2 62_:_? >_:_:;^: :c^_: :^_^:; 1^2]2 :: :_:_cc ; c__::^: :U92911 -2b;:^2^:2 ? ;:^2 ; ?V 1-22:V:^ ;; ;c_? ?;;c_? ?g_c ?_; ;_ ? _c_c; ? ; ; ? ;: ? :_: c_ ;:^16 ; ;: ::::2 :::^:^c_c: ;c_c: ;^;;^; ?^_b; :_; ;_ ;?^1 ^:_ ;;?_;; ;? ? :^:::V ? ; ?_ : ::: ? ;c_c ? ;_ ; ;^; ; ; _c^_:_^_ ? ?;;_? ? ? ; ; ; ;c_g_?_ ? ^^2: 2^2^9 W ?; ^;:^: 6^:;_ ; ;;^_c_;? ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ? ? >_cg c; ;_?V:2^1 1U--:^;:V:^2: V:c_c;? ;_:Y 111-1 ccgc :2 2^:2_ ;_ ; ; ; ?c; ;c;^_^; _ ;c_c^c:^:; ?_c ? ? _ ; c_c _ccc _? : _c :; 6:2:16: 2^2^2 :_: ;?__c_c_c_ ;c;:;c_b;:_c^:c_c; 12U:V:22^::_? ;^;?_ c; ;^: ^;:^:_:2 : C ; :V ? __c; ;^1 :^_ ? ;c ; ; ; ? ;c_;^c__c_c_?_^_:_:^c_ ; ; c; ; _c;;_c;_ ; ; :^2:2 ^1U21 21V:2 _cc_c_^;: 22^Y:2Y2^2 6:2:^ ; _cc_c; ;c; _c_c_:_^^_^; _c; ?_^ :2U 2^; ;;c_ccg;?_c;::2V ^^:::^2^22^ 2fc? ;cC ^:2U2YU2 : ; ; ? V::V:? ;c cC; ; ? :c_c ; ? ?_ ?^:cg c; ? ? ?_: _: ?^^: ^ ; ? ;^:2U V:::^2 62:U:2 :^2:^:_:;_?:_;? ;cg_ ;c; ?^ :_?^; :^; ;^_c:;^ 2^1:2::_? ?;__cc_?_^^ U6:V:^2 ^;^:^2:2 ? _ ;: :^: ?; ; ? ^2 ?_ ? ; _ ; ? ; ; ; ; ? ;c_c_ _? _c_c_? ;^ :2:2 6V1V1 2UU2^: 1:; ;c_ ?^: 2^: ? ; ; ;c__;? : ; ; :; ?__b2 ?g;c ;c;_? _;:221 :Y:U9 :^:::^ U2^::^; ;? ; ? ; ; ? ? ? _b_ ; ; c ? ; ? ; ? ? _c; ; ; ? ? ;_: :^21: W ;c_c; 2^::Y^1 :YV:2 62^:_:;_c__c_ ;c_c_c ? ?; _ ? ; ; ; ; _? _c_ ? ?_^:V 12::^:V V; ? ; ?_?;^2^2Y:2 :c; ; ; ; c:2U11- ; ;c_c;?_ ; ? ;^;:^;^: ?:^:_:: _ ? ; ;c ?_ ; ;_; ; ::2 11: ? 6:^:^::_ ?_?_;? ?;_:_c^ ;? ?_?_ ; ;? ?: ;^2 2:2^::_ ?_c?_?_;_?_?:2V 2^ ;; ? ;c ::2 c; ? ? ?C_^ ? ; ; ; ; ? ;c_c_?_^_^_^_c__ : ? ; ? ?_c_c_ ? ? ; ;^;^ V122^: :2^:Y2 2V:2: 6::V:::_ ; ; ; ; ;c ;c ?; ; ; ?_ ; ;_ ; 2^: ;?_:_;_?_c;? 2^::V: 1^: ? ? ? ;^;V:1:V1 ;21 2:V: C ?_c ?_ ? ;? ; ;c^?_ ;?^c^c: :: : ; ; _ ; ; ? c^:2 11U: ?; ? :V:^: ?_c; ; ; c; ; ;? ?_c__? c_c;? ; ; ; ?_>;V 2^2^2:: : ?c c_ ? ::Y^:11 2:1U2 21V9V ? c;^:2 --11111 c; ; ? 2^:_ cc ?_c; ?; ;_; cC ;^ ; _ : : ? ; ? ?__c; ;; ?_c? ? ; ? 2V1:^_ _c_ ? :;_;c_c; _? ? ?^ : ; ;b_;? ?c_c;_ ; ;^: :^;? ;?; ; :_:;c_c: ^:_:V2 2> ? ?gc_? ;^:2:2 ^::^_cg ? ? ; ;_; ? ?;^ ? c; ;^c_b_ ? ? ?; _c ? _ ; ; c; ;;:^2 :^?; :; ; ; ; ;?__ ;?_:_? ?_;;_;?: ;?_ ; ;__cC ?_ :_ 6:_ ;?_:_;;_;;_;; 3 1:^::: V1^ ? c ? ; ;:^2^Y2U1 ? ;c ; ?_ :^1 2:^_c;c; _ ? ? _c_^;_c_c ; c; ; ; _c ; _c__? ?_c C ? ?__ ? _2 V:;_? ? :^2 1V:2^2^ ;;c;_;b__? ; _ ;? ; ?; ; : V1V:V:2^:c_c_c_cC ?_?_ ?^ :^:^2 :^::1 ^:_:^2: ? ? c;^2 ? 2:^:?; ;_c;c; ; ; ;c__:?_; ; ; ;_b_^cg ? ?_cC ? cc_c_c ? ;^^2 112V: ? ;^:2^2U ; ;c_c; ; ; ;_cC ;; ?_c_c; ; ; ; 2:^:;;:_: ;? ?;c; ; ; ::_:: ?;^: ? c^::2 ? ;c ;?^21 V2:^:: c_ ;c_c; ;_? _c ;^;^; ? ?; _c _c;? ?_c ; ? ; ; ; ; ^:: ^: c_? ; : 2^ ;c_cc:^ ?__c_?_c_c_c__c; ?_c_c_;c; ? _c; ;c; ;_: 12]29 :^:_:_:_? c_c_c;?_: ^^b^: -2^::^2^21 V:; ;c_?_; ? _^:^2 : ; ; ? ; ; ;V1 ; ; ; ? ?_:c;b_ ;^:_:^^; c_c ? ?; ; ? ; ;?:V:Y -2::_?_c ;; ; :_c_cC_ ;2 2^:V: : ?__c_c_cc_?_? ;_?_^c_^?:__: ; ; ;: ;c;c_c :2:c;^::;^;_c ^:;^::2 216^2 _c c ; ?^2: c; ; ? 2^:_ ? _ ?_ ;? ; ; ; ;^_:_:; :_; ? ; ?_c; ; ? ?g_c_ ?_ ; ; C ? 2^:_^ c_c ? 19UYU- 10U11- _ ?; ; :^2 ^3:_c_? ;_c; ? ;c_c; ;c_c_?_^;;^;_:^;; :_; 2^1V9 :^_c:;_;_?_?;;c;:;: V:^^ ? ; ;: ^c ? ; ? ; ?g_ ?2U1 111-1 6::: ? ; ? ;c;:;;b;: : : ; ? ? ? :^: c V?; ; ? V: ; ^c_; ?_c^ ; ;c; _c; ;_c__c;^ _c_c: ;c ; ; 6: ?; _? ?; ;_ ?__:^ :;:^::2 2Y2:;c ? ? C ? bcC_:_;:_c_ _c _^2 6^c ?; ? ; ? ? ; ?_ ;_ ; _^c ;^: ;^ ;_^; ?^c_^;^;_c;; ; ; ? ; _^2U2 2 _; ; ? :V1U1 1;_c;?_?__c;:1 _c; ;__c;; ; ; ;c; : :c; : ?:_:? ;:_^;^;^: 2:^:; ;?;_;c;? V:^:^:V :^ ;? C c ;?_;: >f_ ? ;: ;_? 2^: _ ; ; ?; ;c_c; ?_ ; c_? ; ; ; ;; :_^__c_? ?_ _^;^; ; _^__ ; ; ; ? ? 2 ? _ ; :^:1 2^ ;;_ ; ? :V:^1 ?_c_; ;c; ; ;c; ; ?;c_c :_^;^:; ::V:^ ? ;c_c___c;?_? ]:^:^:- 12:_:::2:2: ?cgcc_ C :^2 16::^: ? ;;c_c; ; ? 9V::_?C ? ? ; ? c cg_? ? ? ? ; ?; ; c ;?^_> ? ; ; :_ ;^ 2^2:Y ^_;? ;; ; V: ? ;?; ;? ?_c_c ?__c_c; ? ?; ; ; ;c_c__?; ?; ;c^?: ?;?_?c;; ^ ;::^ 1^:^6 1V2U2 _c__: ?_c_^:2:2Y: Z]Z]b : ; c__? V22:V: c :_cg ; ? c; ?_c_?__c ; ?; _c_ c ; _ ? c_ ; ? ?_ c ; _c;; ; : 12^2V ^ ; ::2 2: ;_; c; ?_c : ; ; _ ; ; ;c; ; ;_;;c_c; ; ; ;c_? ?_;_; ;_ ? c_c c _c ?_?; : ?_:^:: 6:V:1 U22: ? ? ? ? ? 6Y2:^:2Y ; ? ; ? ;:2U ?^? ? ? ? ; ? c_ ? ; _c __; ? ;? _;c ; ; _c^c^c;_c_:? ; ; ? 111V ? ? ?_c_?_ ; ? 2^ ;?;c;? ?; ; ? ?_c;? ?_ ;_; ;c; _? ?_; ; ;c_? ;:c 2:^ ;c;_?_:_;c;;^c; ;11 ; 2V9 ^:;:2^: U2^: ? _c;c ; ; _ ? >_2^:V:^:::^:V1U ; _?; ; ?;c;cg_1 V:2^: ? _ __c_c; ; ; ;_:_c ?; ; ;? ;c_cg ; ; ; ; _c ;^c:; ; ;__b__b__c_c C ?_ ; :1 ? ; V:; ? ; ?_ ; ;c_c ;^;:: ? ? ? ; ; ; ;?; ; ; ;; ; ; ; ;; ?_; ; ; ;c ; ;c_? ?_ ;?^ ? ;^:2^ : ? ? :^:^:^:1 : ? ; ? ? ? ; ; ; : 2^29V:? ??;c; ; ; ;_; ;^_^;; _?_ ; ; ?_ ; ? ;c; ;?_:_c_ ? ;c;; ; ? ? ?_c_ ? U2^ ;c_c_c _?_? ? ; ; c _c_c; ;_?;;_;;_:_;b;:_:;_;:_ ;_? _: ;c; ; ;_ ? ::;;c; ? ?g ; ? ^cC ;:VY9^ -::^2:U -::^c ; ; ? ? ? C ? --:^;::^6 ^ ? _c ;? ? ? Y2^: c? ; ; ? ?c_? ? ? ?_ _c; ; ; : ? ; c_cc; _ c_c_c_c ; ; ; ; ; _c c ?_? ?_ _:V22::___c_? _^^_Y -1V:;; ;c_?; c _ ? ; ;c_c ;c; ? ? :_ ;b_:;: _? ;c;c: ;_:?; _ ; 6:V: ? ?_ccc^1 : c:V:2 ^^^:2 U9^:V2 :V: ?C ?_?; ? ? c ^ _^:^:^ :c_c ; ? _? ; _c 1111V1 V:: ;_ ; ? ; ? _c ; ; ?_ ?g_ c; ; ; ; ;; ;_ ;_;; :_ ? ;c_c _cC_ ;; _ ? g:::; ccc_:_cgc;_c;b; :^V1- 2: cc_c ; ?; ; c? ; ; ;^; :_? ; :^; ?_c;_: ;_:_ ;; ; ; ; ;^c_:_:;;c :_?_; ?_;_: ?_^:2 12:_: -:^2: ?__? ?; ; ? ? ? ^;^;:: U2:_2 >;__c__c_ ; ?_ ? :^ c? ? ; ? ? ; ?_cC_cg ? ;c_ ?__ ; ? ?_c_ ; ; : ; _? >^2:2 ^;^:;c_c_?_ ;; _::2: V:_ ;^; : ?::^_^;:^;^;^;^; ; ; ;c__; ;^_^?; >_ ; ; ; ? : ;; ; ;? ?:_:;^_c_? :^:_? ;_c_? c? 12 ;c ::V25 ^^ ?g ? ; ; ; c V:::^:V :^ ; ? ; ? :V:Y2: ; ;_c?_ _c_c_c_?;? ;?;_ ?;_ _c_c : c_ ; ? 2^c_c_ ; ; ;: ;VY :^^_^>; ?_:_ ;?_b__b; ; ; ; ;c_c__? :^;^:_ ?__^;c:__c:;_c_?^;^;_ ;?_;: ;c__?^; 6:2; ?; ; ? :;^ ;? ?C ?;^ ^ ?__:^2 ? ; ?_ :^;^1 ;; ; _c_ ? _c ; ? 22: 1: ? ? ? ? ? ? C ? ; ? ;? ?; >_^?:_ ;; ? ; ? ; ; ? ^:^22: ;c; ? C ;_c^:2 2^_c ?; c; ; :;:^__c^c_c_c ; ; ;c;cc_? ?; __c__c ? ; ;^_c;^;; ;c_?_ :c__?_:_::_:;c ;c_cC ; ?_ :^2:V:U2Y 9U111 :V:^Y ?__c;c_;; ?; ? : _; ? ?_cg ;_? ?_ ?_ ? ; ;c_c_c_c :^2 ; ; ? ; ? ; c c ; ; c? ; ; ; ; ; ; ? ; cg 12:_:^:V::^:2 ?;;;_c? ? ^V ^: ; ; ?; ? ^;^:;^;^ ;? ?; ; ; ?_c_c__c_?_ ?_>__^ ;? ;_?_:; :; ^;c_:_? 21V:1 ?;_:?_c;_c^; ; ;c; ? ;?^:VY 9110- -:1-:^::_21 2^: ?_cg ? ?_c ? ; c ; -2: ?; _;c_:- 0119]9 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;^ ? 1^?_ ?c_c ?_c_c^c_ ; ?^ :^: ;^; ? ? ; ? ; ; ? ; ? ? _c;;: ?_c 1:_::;^;:_::^21 c ? _ ;_:_: : ccgcc? ;; :_:;:; ;^;?;_cc_? ?_ ; ;? ; _c_c_c_c; ; ; ; ? ?_c_?; _ :;; ;c_c 2::_?_; ;_ ? ; ? ? ?_?;^2 ::2:VYV ? C ? ; ;c; ;c 2- ^2:^:^2-- : ?; ;? 1]2 g ? ? ? ; ; ; ? ? ; ; : __>; ;c__ :_::_:c::_ >_:; ;^;_ ? ; ; ; ;^;; :c: :^: ?_^ 1^:_:_::_::^:: ; ;: ::1 ?_; ; :_ ; ; c_; _?;_ ;? c;: ;; ?; ;_ ;;: ;:_b;^;^ ;; ;^ ;c_c; :2^::cc ; c? C ; ; ?; ? ? ;^; :^c ? ? ; ? ? :^::2 -2: ? ; c: ^ ?_:;^_ ; ? ? ; ; ? ?; :c:_: :c^_:_:^; ;_:_^; _c_? :;:V:;:_: ; ? ;_c_ :- :_: ::_: :^::V: ?::V ; ;c_c;_: ;? c_c_c ;? ?__;?? :_^b; :_: ; ; ;_ ;_ ; _c; ? ? ;cc ::^; ; ;; ;ccg_c:; :c_cc_c_2 2^?_c ? :_:::^2^2^:2V V: ? ; ?c; ;? ; ? ? cc >_ ; ; ; ; ?; ? : ;_? 2 _c ; ? ; ;_^c_;: ^; ^c_;^;:^;^;^:V 2:^ ^2^:_:_; 2 1_^;^:_:^ -1^2V ::V2Y :; ;? : ; ;c__?_c_c;:_ :;^ ;_ ;_;;c; ;;;_?_ ; ; ; ?_; ;_? 2^2^; ;c ; ? __?_:V1 ;bc ? cC :_:^^^:^:2^:^^^:^:_: c_ ;?; ; ;c : c_c ^ c- ^ ; c;_^? ; ? ? ;c_c_ : ;;:_:_;;c;; ;^c:c_?^;^;^: :_c;;_ : ; ; : : ^:2:;:^;: 1V:;^:_^; 11:_:^ :^:VY ?; _? ; ; ; ;^;;^_c;:_ ;:;_ ; c ^ ?:;^;^;;; : ;;c:_:_ :^:: ? ;c_c_c_? ; ; ; g ; ::V V:_ ; ;c ;^;::^::::^:::^:^:;: ? b V: ? ? ? c ? c; c ? c_ ? ; ? ?:2^; ? ;^;V ?_;; >;^;c_? ?; ; ;? _c^c:2^ --2^c:^;^;^: _^^;^:_: :^:_::_: :::^ ?^_b;c_c_ ; _c : ^ ;_c^ 2>_^_:;^ ^^;;1 :V::V:: ;?__?; ? >_c_ ;? : ;;b; ^;^:_::_;^;;^;c^c:_b 2]2:U2 :2:^? ?_ ?; C ? ? cc; ? :V:_^^; :^:_:::^: ? ; b ? ;? ;;_:;:c_c ?__; _ ; ? ; ;c ?_ ? ? ;^:;^2 : ; ? C ;; ;^ ? ;^ ; ; ;b; ::_:_::^;2 2^2:_>_V ;c:_ ; ; ;c_c; ; : ; ? ; :_:_>;^: ::^:: 6^212^: c; ;^c_ ; ; : :^: _ ;^:^ ; ; :^:1 2^c_?^_:^;^;b_:_:;_:;? :2:V:^: ? ; _? ? ; c_? ?gc ? ?^:V::_^_::^:2^ ; ? ?_: 1_:^ c: 2: ? 2: cf_b ? ? ? ; ? ? _bg_ ? ?_? ? ?_ ;? ? ; ; ; cV ;c_c_c; ; ;; ?_ ; ?; ;^c; ::^:_:;^2 ;_; ::Y:^:: : ;:_;:? ?; : > ?_c ^ :_:^::1-1^;^: 2::^2:^2 2:^:^_c_ ;cg_;? ;:;;^; ;;^; ; :2 :;_^_; ;?; ;;c:_; ; _ ::^2> ; ?; ? ; ; ;? ;? _c :V1 12^: ; _ cgc_ ;V V:^:;^:: b;;^ ; : b- ?_;? ? c? ;c :_ V::;^;_ ; ; ; ;c _c_cc^;c ^: ; ? ; :_c_ ? _? ? :Y _; ;^ :^:_:_: : ; ; :- : ;_:_;;1 V:^;:^;^ 1U2]: :V::^2:: 6V::^_^; ? ?_c_c ; ; ; ?^_:^;;^;b_ ; 2_^c; ; _ ;_ ; ; ;c?_ 62^2^2^ ; ; ; ? ?_ ? ?_c ; cgcC_^;2 V:^ ? ?cC_cg ? 1; ;^cc ^: ? ? ; ? ;c_c ? ?C ?_ ;^ ;b_? 22V 2^ _? ? ; ;c_c ; ;c; ;_?_ _ :^: ; _ ; ; ;_c; ; ;c ; ;^? ::^ ; _^:: ^:^_c_c_c;;2^:_:_:^: :;^>^1 2:_^^;:2 --1_:_: :^::V:::^:^:^2^::: 2^::_:^; ;?_?__c_;^? >_^;_>;2^ 1V^c_?_; ;; ;_;^_c_: 2^1V: ^ ;_;c;_: ^; ;_? c_? ?_c; ?:^2U ::; ; ? ;_;c;;^; U:_:2V: ^ :^ : ^cC ? ? ; ? ?__c__; c; ;_c;b_c ;V1 2^: ? ?_c_c;?_cC ; ? ; ; ? 12_cg ? ; ; ? _ c; ? ; :^c:^: ?_c^::V V:;:_:^ _:^:^:::^2::V: 6^2:::_::;: ;_:;^; ; : ;:_ : :;_; ;; ;c^_:U _c_ ;c; ;cc? ?_;c;? ;?_?_;c__?; _ ; ;_c ? ; ?__^;^2UU 11^:c C ;c_? ? ? ;^2 -:;; ;^_c_b] ?C ; ? ?_ ? c__; : 1U:: c ? ? ? ; ? ? V: ? ? ? ; ;c_ ?_c ; ; ;^: 11:^_; 2 :^_c? ?_;?^2U1V9 -:^>;_c_ : 1V:^:; ---1^::^ :Y^:: ^^;::^:_::^^::V: :::^:_:^:_ _:c_? ;c:_:;_^_:;^__b: >_ : : ?;; ; ;c__:_> 2]2^2 ^ ?; ? ; ;?: ;:^;b_c;c;; 11V>_? ;?_ ;c ;_c;c :_2 ? ?gc ; ? _? ; ?; ? ^: ?_cC ?_ ;? ;c_c ; ; ;c; 2^ ; ? ?C ; _ ? ::^: :1 V? c :: _?;?_ ^^2: ;c; :V _?_^;^;:_::;:^::^:^:_:_:;:^:;_?; ;_?_?; ;^: ?::__:_^^:V:_; : V:_; ;:_ ; ; ;; ;? ?_?_cg_c;^;:^?__?; ;_cg; ;V 2^:^ ; cC ; ? __::V1 ; ; ; ^:;cC; ?? ;c;c;;;? _c ? ? V1 V:: ; ?_cg ;c_c;; ; ? c_c ;? ? ; ; ? ? ?g; ? :V:V:^: U2 ;; c_?^: ; ?_2 -^ cg_::^:^_^;_:_;:;^: :V:2^^ ^^c_c_c ?;^_^;^;^;^;:;^;: ;b;_ :?;^;_ ;^? :^ ;?; ?_c;c; ;^; ; ?g ;c_c; ? :::^::1 : ? ?_ ;? ? ;^:2 : ;c; ? ? C^ : c c ? ? ; ;ccg^_:;^;: U2:^c ? ; ? ;:^1^12 :^ ?_?; ? ? ; ? c ; ?c_ ; ? ::U: :^:^1 ^;^^2^Y:V:: ^?_c_c; 2:^: ::6^:^:; V^_^c; :c_b; ?^_:_;:;^2 ----11 ; :_; ; :; ?^_?_ V:?_cg_c ? ; ?_? c_?_c_? -2^:^^:V ?_c_ ? ?; :; ; c ;1 -: ? cc:; cg ;?_; ;?_c ; ;cc :_:_ ^:_?;^; ? ; ? ?_?; _cc_2Y ^ ? ? ;c_? ; ; ; ; ; ;c;; ;^ ::12^::2 9V9^1 -:__ ? :2^:_1- 2^;;: :c_c; ;_c_ : ;c: ^ ;c; ; ;^;;b;:_ ;^ 2B_cc; ? ??_:_cg_c ; ^:2:22 :?C ? ? ; ? ;^;::^22V c;c :; 2: ? c ? ?_c_c_;;^:: 1:; : V:;c ? _? :c ccg ? :2^2 1V:_:_ ; ;? ?_ ?; ; ; ? ; ; ; ::U: ^:^:VY 1V1;_;: :^:2:U1V -2g ;; ? 6:2^2: >_; ; ; ;c^c;:;_? :_c^; ;b_^; ; ; V _c; ?__c_c__; ;c_c;; : -:: cgcg ? ? cc_ ;^;^:^:; ? ?g_?_ ? ; ? ?_c ; ?_ ; ? ?c_c; ^: ;?^21 ?g _? ; ; ; ? :^2YU ; ;ccC ? ; cC ?_ _? ? :V ; ? :V >_:^; Vb_ ? ::^_1 :c; ;^;^c;_c ^;;: ;_? ;;^c^;^ -1:^? ? _?_;c_cC ?:c_c; ?_cg; c _2 V:_;c_c ? ;c__? ;;? ; ;_; ? ? ? ?_ccg ?; ? ; ? C_^2Y:U22 :U:2V : ;V ? _ ?_ ? ? cc:2 ^cg_ ; ? ?_ c; ;c ? ? _ ;:U^^ :1-2 :^ 1_:^:: : ; ; : ?__ ;^ 1^:^: :2^2Y :2^:^ ?__c;;; :_ :^ 2^;:^2 :_>_;b_^;^c; ;^? 2^: ;?_;:? ?_c;_c_? ?_ ?_ ^:::: ? ? c_c_c; ; ;c C ; cgc ? ; ? ? ? ? ; ;__c_c; ? cc ? ?; ; c^:2:V :2: ? ;c_c ? ?^;; ? ; ;cg_^ 12^:_: ;c;^; ; ; ? ; ;^;:^ -1:_2 V ? ? ;_1-- ;^:;^;:^1 U2^11] ^ C ? : VY:^2^:;^ >__ _ :_^c: :__^;:_:_:^2_:__:; U::c; ?_c; ;?_? ?_?; ;? ?___ ?_ 2 ; ; ? ?_c; ? ? ?_ ; ; ?_?_; ? ; ? ? :_:^: :^2 ; ; ;c ; _ ; ; ; ?_ :2 U::^:^; ; ; ? ;^;^c?^:2 ^:^:11 11^;: :^_c_c: :^::^2 ^cc_c 5:V:2 ?; ?:; ; 22^_c;: ::;^; ::_: ;_ 2^ ; ? c _c? ?_c_? ?_cc;?__b_?^ 2 ; ?C ; ? ? ?_c__? ; ; ? ; ? ? 2: ?:2 :^>? ?C ? c ;^1 2^::; ?_c; ? ? ;_ :V 112:V2:U2 ;^:^:2^ ;?_; : U2:V919 : ;:1 6:2^2 2^;^;^;^:_::^:V V:;c^c:_;^::_:_:_:^; ; ;?_; ;? ? ? _cg_? ?g_cc ?_^ c _ ; ? ;c_c ; ? _ ; ? _c_c_c V:2:2^:^c c ?; ; c ? _?C_^2:U2 V:_:^_c_c_ ; ; ; ;_c _^:2 _ c ?^2 2^2^:: ^?;?^ :V:_: :;; ;^;; ;b_^: ^ ___c::;^;;:_^c^_; _? ; ; ;c? > _cg_?_:c_c C ? ? ? ;?cC c;cg :c ; ?_ ?;c_c; ;c_c ; ? ;_c_; ?c_? 2^:V: cc ;VY V2::^c; ? ? _c c ? ;;^ ;? ? ::V :::V:? ; ? ? ccC^1: 1::22Y ;^:2^2: -cC;c; ;:21 :2:_::1 ? : _b: 2^2^2 12::^; ; ?_c_ ; ?;c; :: ? ?_ ? ?; ?_;c ?_ : ; ::;cc_? ?;c_c ;?; ;c _ ?c ; ?C_? ?_ ; ?_ cgc; ? ? ; c_ ? ? ?^:;^; ?_ :c ? 2:2Y] 2:^::^2: ::V:2? c^:V1V _ ;?; ? ; _c ; ;^2 ^_^:_ ? ? c ? :2^2:1^: :Y2]2 : ;^;^? V:^:^1 :^;^::_? ; ;c; ; ; 1^:^ ;c; ?_?_ ;;c ;? ?g:;_ ; ; ?;? ? ? ? C ; ;c; ?_c; ?; ; ;c_c ? c_ _ ? ?_c_c_c_c_ ;V:^2 ]2^::^22 ::V c_^^2] 2^: ? ; _c ;c;? ; ?C ? 2:U :^:::: _? ;^ ; ;c_c ; ?^;U2 ^12^:2^YV2 V ;^::2 ? ? ?:V: 2:V:2^2 2:V2:^ :U1 V:_;b;_;: ; ;:^2^2 V21V;^:;_b_::?^?: ;_ ? V2: ? ; ?; ; ;_? ?__cC ?c_c; ? ? ;c ; :_2 V:;^:_;;c; ;c_c; _? ?_?;?_ g;c c ?;^:^::V:1292 2Y2:: :2^:;^;:^2 V::;^;_ ?c_c; ; ; ;c_ C _^;: Y:2^:^:^;c_c; :;^; ; ; c:V:: ::^22 ;^^::^ 1 ; ; ;^: :V:U::^; ; U2:c ;; ;^c_>^:U29 ?__c_c_c:; :^ ;? ?_ ; ? ; ; ; ; _? ;c; ;^; ^ ; ;c ; ; ?_? ;? ?_?__c; ? ; ?c ? cc; c; :_:: :2 ; 2^:^? ?;__? ; ;c_c; ;c_? ?: ^2^:V VY:2^:; :;^^c_c_c ; ? 1^21^2 ::^^^ ^;V2^:V:922 ? ;^2 :2:YV:U ::_^2U 2^c; ?_: ;_: ;: :^:22^ V:_c_c;_c; ?^;_?; :_? 121--: ; ? ?;c;_?^;c_c; c_c_c;?_c 1UV:c_cC ;c; ? ? ;c_c_c ? ? ? C_ ?_ ;::^2: :V::^:V: 2^::; ;?_cg ; ? ? ?_ ; _2- :^:::^; ; ? ; ? :^2^: :^-2^ : ::^2V V12?__::: ; :1 :^2^2^: : ? :2^ >2 ::^;^:; :c_c_:^2:V ^2:_;? ;c:_?^c_c^c:; ; ;c;___; ;;? ;c_cc;_?;^ ;_;>_: : 2::c_? ? ; ;c^;:; ? ; ; ; ? ?c:c_?c;c;_?;^:^::^2: ::^:::^2:V2V: 62:^: 1-:^1 2:_ ; ? ; ? cg ; ? ^ 2^::^2^::? ; ;?^2 : :^2 :^2921 2^ ::^2^2 2 ?; ; ; ?_ :^:^: 62:V: : ;V1 V _c_?_:; 2^:^2: 2V: ;_;? ; :_;:_? ;:^;^2 :^;^::;>_?^:_;c: ;_;c__ ;;^:_;:3 :^ ?; ; ;^ ; ? cc__? ?; ; ?c_c C ?;_ ;_c_c ; ; ? ;^::^2: :_:^2: :^:: :: ; C ?_c C_c ; ; 1::^2 :V::^:::^; ;:^;_ 2 2^;^;: ^:U:^> 2^:V21 2U: :_: ? ? ? ?^ 6:^:;: 1U::cc_ ;c_c; _b:2 ^::^2 :^; ; ^; ;c_b_c_c; ;c ^::^2: 2^;;_:?^:;?_:_? V2:V: ; ;ccc ? ? ? ; ^_:;;cf; ; :_?;: ?_?_cg; c ; ; ; ? ??^2:^: 2^:::^:^ ^:::V: V1 2:V: c ? V :V1 6:V::_:^:V:^;^:__^2 2 _ ; 2 _^:1 :^::2V V:;;:^:2 ?; ;__? ;^; 2 6:2^:V:_:^;^1 :___?_ ; ; ?_:_:2^ 2:^:2:U 2^2; ;c;_c? : ;_:;c_c; 2^:_^;? ;_?_; ; ;_? ::c;b;: :_ ;?^?^ ^:_2V :;_:_?_? ? ;c;?;?_ ?g ;? :^:::2:U :V: :::^:^2: ::_:_:^;:; ;;b_?^;c_b :__c:U1 ::^:2:^::; ; ?: _ ? ; ?^:: : :2U ^:^1U ;_;:^;^;^; --:V2: -:2 :b : _c_c: :2: ;c: c;c;_? :^ ; ; c; :^:;c;c_c; ; 6:^; ;_:_ ^ ; ; ? c ? :^:^: 6^2:^2^ 2^2:^ 2^:_:^;^;^c__:;^; ?^2 :V:^::^:V:^:__c_^1 V:^ : ::^:^:2 ]2YV:^ 9]11Y ^_c22:2: ?__?; :- ? 2^:1::^ ; ; ; ;:_^_:2: ^::^: 2:2:: ;? ; :c_c; ?_c_c;^ :V:c ; ? ;_?_ ;b;2U ::_; ; ; ?_cg_:_:^::: 2^:_ ;:^: :::^2: 2^2^::^:^2: ^1::::^; _::V1V ;_?;c ; ? :::__cg V1^ _c_? :1:V::V 1V2:^?;^ ; ; ; ?_ ; ; ? ; ::^2:V2^ V:; ? ;:V ? ;c_c_cg?^: ::V2^:V: 2^:_;_ ;c;>_; ;c_c:c:^; ; :2^:: ;c_c;c_c; ?_c;c2 :^::_cc ;1 U2^2: ?_c;c_c? ::^:::: ^:^^:::^ 1: ; ? ; ? ::^:U :V> :1- :: ? ; ?::^: 1:_^^2U V::^2 :V::2^1 2:2^: ::^_^ ^:222 c?g ? ? ;^_bcV 2V:_^;_;_^c:_c_ ;: ; ?; ;? ;c_c; : 2:^;c_c; ;?; _;c; _^ 2:^cgcc_c ; ; : V:V2^:: 6_:^2^2:V ^b^^: :_:^:2- C ? ; ? ;c_c :V:U :2:V:^1: ; :^2: -:^::^2 2:^:^:^ 2V::^2^2:2 cg ; ? ;?; ; ? 2-- 2:_ ; ? ? ; ;^? :^:^2^ U2:^2 ^_?_ ;_ ?; ;_: ;c_ 2::^: ;? ;c_c ;? ;? 2^:^:; 1^:_cg_? :::^:V: 2:2:: U:2::b: 1-2 cc;; ; ; ?_c_ :^:;: U2^Y2^?_?^3^:2 ^1^2:^::2U V:6^:V::2 ::^:U c;c; : -2 ;_::_; U:c_?_? ?^29U 12^; c? _ ;; ;?; :^::? ;? ?_ ;cgV ::ccc ? :6:V: :^2---- c ? ? cg? 2^:V1V ; 2 : ; b ::^29 9::2^::^: ? ;?; ?; ; ?g:2^2 2 c; ;_c -2 _c _c :2U V: ;_ ; ; ? ? ; ;^: ?g__ ?_?;__c_c;?__; 6V::_ ^ ?; ; ?; ; ?_:1 2:2:^; 11::^__:: ; ;?_ :^:V:2 :V:2^:::^: ?_c; c_^ ^c ^2 11^:V2::2 : ? : :2:: ?:_: ^2^Y: 99U1]1V:^ 9V: ; ; ? ? _ _?^2 :: :^^: ; ? ? ?;c_c_^:U 12^ ; ;? :;^_b:2^2 1_ ?_? c_c?_? ;^ ? ^2:^::^: :_ ; ?_ ;? V2^:c:_;_>; _ 2^:^:2:292V c; ;: 2: :^V U26:^;1 U: ; :V 2^2^ :V:: :^:6: ::^2:^: : 2 ;_?_;; ? ;?;c _ _ c:_ ?_;_ ; ? 2 -1_ ? ? __c_c_c ;;cg^ ; :; 6^__; :c; ?^?;:c; :^V:2^:; 1^ ;_?; :_ :^:^2 :V::^- :: ; ; ; ::^;: 11-2:V :?_c:V V1^2U V:_:::2:: 11^ ;c2U ^:^^^:2 1:2^2:V:1 2:^22 ? ? :_ ? ; ; c? ? ? 2 2 cg _ ; ; ? ; ;^;? ?_c_?_b ^c;c_c_c_c__? ?_c^: : : ;_: ;? ?_:^; ;: ;:_>:V :;c; ;:^ 2^:_^:V: :_ ?_ ::2 12^2:^2 2:c_ ; 2::^11^ U1:_::2: :; ?_; ; ? ;c_c ? ?_ ;_; ;?;? :V: U2C_c;::^; ? ;_c_c: ;c_c_cc :2^ 1_; ;c_? ? ; ;? :^2:U: ;c; ;? :; ;>;;^:; :^2^2:^ 1^ ;;_2 ::^2- V2^: ; ;^2 ::V2: YV::^:^:2^:2 ::^:^ 111V:> ^:2 22^2^::V :^::::U1U 2^^^2 V:^1^2 ? ;c ;c ; ; ; ; ? ?_ 12c ? ?^; :_c ;cc_ ? cc_?;c_cC ;_:_c:V ? ?_ ;_? ?^:2^2 c;_; ;;_ ;c_c;c_c V:^::^:2U;_? 62^:1 :2^:;^ U:^:^2 :2^:^::^:2 6:V:^2: V:::Y ^2^:^2 :^:2^ ;_? ;c; :_cC ?c ; ? ; ; ? ? ?_^c; ; 11U2:V ; ; ?_ ;?_ ?_ ; ;c_c_c_? 1:2:^:_2 2:V:V :^:2^2^ 6^:::V: :^6^: :^:V: 2^1V1 12:^: 1^c_? >^:^2^: ^:2^1^:2V ? ; ? ; ;? ; ; ;_ ? ^^- ? ; ; ? ? ^_c; ;c_c;_; ; ;c_c;; ?_c; ; ;?_ ; :^::V2:;:^:V 22:U: V2::^2 2Y2:2^:^^: U2^:::V2 V:V111 ; ? :^2 ^_^22 ^^62^: ? ? c 2 ? ?; ? ?_c__? ? -: ? ; ?c_c_cc?g_c_c ;c_c; ; ?^?; ;c;>; c;c; ;c_c ;c_c^;c_c; ;c ^:::^ V:2^:V :^2^: 2^:^:_ ::^:^2 2U2^1 12^2:1V 1:2-- 1U:_;; ;:2U Y12U2^1 V:^2:1 V::^2 c_ ? ? ; c_ ? ? ; ? ; _c ? ^ ; ?C ? ?; ? ; ; ? ?_c; ; ?:_;__? ? ; ;? ?_ ;___ ;? ?;; ;_? ;? :2^:^:V: 6:V:1 2^2^;2- 2^2^1 2 ? _ :V:2 -2^:V1^:2 U:2^2 Vcg ; ; ? ; ?_?; ? ; ; ; ;c;: 6:^2^; ?; ;; ;?_c; _ ?_ ; ? c; ; ;_ ; ? _ ; ;c_c; _c_c; ?_ ; ? 2^?_ ;?;?_? ?;?_c_; ? 2^::2 ::::V V:^2U1V 6^:V:2Y ::1-2 1^_:VY :c__?; :V 6: ? ? C ? ? ? C ?;?_ c_ ;? ?; ; ; ? ?; ;c_c; ;c; ? ; ; ; _?_c: U2 ; ?_c_ ; ;c_c_c; ? Y:::_: 12^::V: 2^2^:_ ^21-^2^2 :2^:: U:::^2 2:2^: :^:^2U _:V:2-- c; ; ? c; ; c ; ? ? ;c_ c_?_? ? ; ? ; ; ; ; ; ?_c ; ^^ :; ;c_c_? ;c_c_c; ?_c;c_c_ U:12: 6^:6^ V92^2- V12:^2U V::V:V:2:^::: -:^:29U ;^::V:2 2U2^1 2^;^:V: ^:^:1 ::^:2 11^ ; ?: 1V:V::22 6:; ? ? ? ; ?_c_? ? ?C ?; ;? : ;c_cC_c c; ; ? ? ? : ? ? ?g ; ;c_c ; ;_ ; ;; ?g; ? ? ;c_? ;?_? ; ?; ;2 2^ ; _b; _> ?_c_ ; ;c ::^:; V:V:Y 1V:^22 ::^:^2V2V:::_:::^:^; 2^2^: 6V:2^::^: ^^:::2 :-U:2:: ^:?; ; ^1-1 >;2^ ? ? ; ? c ? cg :^2:2 ^ ; ? c_c ? ? ; ; ; ?_ ? ; ; ? ?_c _c_ ? ?c_ ; :_::_; ;b:V2 ? ;c; ?; ; ;c;c_c__?; 2Y2:V:2^2:^2:V1 2::^:::^:^?^:_:_::V 1U1::V ;^:2:2U2U2 V:V:^2 ^:^:: ?^:_:_: 2^;_c: : :^2^12 ;^; ;c_c; ; ; ;c_? > _b__? ?; ; ;c_c_c ;?;c; ?;_?;; _; ;__c:VU 2; ;_; ; ; ;c_c_c;? ::^2^:U V:^2:: : :^2 V:^21 2: ;:^ V:U2:V:2 ::^: -:^21:1 1:^:^:::U 11-11 2^:;- 2^ cg?_c_^ :_:2:2:^2 V: ;^; ;c; ;c_^_: ;c_c? ?_; ; ; ? ?_c ? ?C ?c^ V C ? ;;c_b?_c^c_ ? :^:^::2: :^::_:V U12^2 6^c^^: 2:^ ; 6::^2 V:21^ ? U2:^2 U21^:^ :12: ^?_c ; __c;?:^: 2 :^:U 2^?; ; ; _? ::_c_; :c_^;:_cc_c ; :c_c ; : 2^c__c^^_ ?___; ?;__^?^2 :;?^; 2^::V::_:V:^1 -2:V2 V:2^: U::2- :: :^::V2 :^2:2 : ? ;? _:^2 V:2:; ?^: 2^:V: 2^;_ ;;:^: :^:V: ?_?; ;? V_^:V 1V:_:c^ V; ;c_c;_ ?_? V_c:V :Y6V::^:V:^2 ^:V22 2:V::_:: 2^1:2 :V:VY :V: ?:;^21 2^:^;1 1^:;^; ;: U2Y2:^_?^ :^ c^::V: :^:2V V:: ?^:V ^__;b;:: V1Vcg_c ; ; ;V: 212^; ? V: ?; ;c_c_c_c_b2 2^; : 1:;^:^2^:_ :^ :2^c;c:^ 1^:^2 -2^:^2:^ ^;_?^1 :_:^^^] 22^::?_?; 1^;c;:2^: 612Y:2^? ;c_c^;^: : ; ; ? _ c_21- ;c 2- ? ; ? V: :^1 ^:^:: 2^:V1 ::V2U Y2:U2 1^:2:2 2::V1 V^ ? 2 2:Y:2 U:V:_ ; ^::: 62^::^ ^ ; ^:2: 2^: ? cgc;^:V:: 2V:2Y:2 ?_cgc_c:2::2 2Y2V::^2^:^ 2Y:^? _ ^_c;; ;;c; ; 2 22V::2 22^:^c ]9Z^1 ^::2^:2 :; ? ? ::V::^2 2V2:1 ; 2 1V:2U ?;^:V: V? _:^: 2: ;:: -V> ? ;^:: 6V:V: 1^:^2 2 ?_ ;c_c_^ V:__?^ ?_ ; ;c:^ 22^:2:U: 1V::^:^: 2^: ? C ; ^9]91U 2^;^:V :V> c :Y^::U ^; c :V:U2 :^ ?_^2^2 ?^:V:2U _c _c:::V: ^:2:^: _c; ? ; ; ?^2: Y:2b; ; V ?_ ; ; ; ; 2 ::^::6^ 1^2:^;? V: : :^::V:V :^2^: 22 -:_ ? ? ?: 2U1V: ;:::2 :^; ;^:2 -2^ ;?_: ::V^:2 ? ? ? 2^Y::^2:2^:V- V2:^; g^2 2 ;_c_c; ;c_b V2^ : :U2^::2^22]::V ^ : -::;^22U2 ;V:: U: ? ? C ;1- V2:^2 : ? ? :^::V1 ::2:2^1 2:_c^;^ ::_::2^21 ? ; ::_^2^2 _?;;c;_;;_: 6:c >211- 1^_c ?_c_c ; :V 2^2?^1 11^:^:^:^2 V:^2V2Y 2:::^2U 2^2:^ c ^:^:U- : cC ? : ^:^ >2b: c :V 22^ 2 ]1:V9V2b ? 2^? ; :2:V: :2:_?;^: V?_c ;^;^::2^::^22^2^:^ 1U2 ; c; ;c; YV:^_c_V ; ?; c ; ; ? V2: ;V ::V::V 2V:22 :^:::^:22 b ? c ^c :^ ^;:1- : ? _^^;Y ^: :1 c ? V: :^; 2^_c :V::1: :^2--- 12 c ; :^:; :_:^:2]:::^:1V : ?; ; ? C2 -2:_2U :2:? ?^1 2^?_ ;?_c; ; ^:^22V:^:V: :: 12bg ?2 ::V2:; : cC _ : :^:^2- 1: ; :2^c^ 2Y:: ? 2:; ?^:2:2 :2^: ? :2^21;^^; 1: ; ? :_::^2: :^::V ? cV ^_^:2^::V1 2^ : : ? ; _ ? ?; ?; :^;^2:2 2^2? ;^: ;2: -1:^: Y:2^ : ^:V:^ :; :2: c;^2 6::^:V:V92:2 Y:^ ? _ 21 U2C ? c^ : :: 1^cC : U1V1^: :^2 1-2^2 ^ ;;:^: ::: ?^^2 c :^:V:^:V: 622^:^^2 ? ; ; : U;::;^:;^2 ; ;? ; ? :_:^: ;2V2 ^ ; ? ;^2^: 22^:;_V ^_^2: ; ? ;V: :U22^2> cC c: 22^::V : cC ? : :2^2^^ ;Vb^ ^? ?2 1; ? 1 :2 2:^ ? ? : :_c :^:2^2: 2^ ? ?^::V::^:^ :6:61 12V>;?_?_?_?cC^ :V:V: 12^_ ; V: ;? ; ;c_c;c; ?_c_c_^:2^2 :_ cV ^c c^;> c ? ? cC c ? ;V2 ::2^:2:^2V2:^2 ^:^cg ? ;:^: 2 1U2::U 6 :::V 1_c :V ? c V:;^2^:cg : :Y 162V:: ;^2 1> cC 2^c :^: 1^2^c c cC :V g ;^ 6^c; ;:V:1V: 12? ? 2:: ?c; ; ; ; :- 1:V:1V:2 ^:;?_?_?;^: ?^:V1 ?_ ;?_ ;? 2c;c? 2 ? _ ? ?:V:^:^:;^:1V:V::> ; c ? ? c ? ? ? c 2^1 : ? ;^:^2 U22: ? ? :V1? -1U:V: 1: : :_c ? ? cf21 2: ? : ^2^2 2^: :2^1 : ^: ;2^2 U:: ;U 1-12:2 V:2U2U -2 ? ? :6 -2:: ; :^:^: ;c;^: ; ;c; ? 2:;c? ?;_;?;c;c: _;_;; ;c ?_c c _c_ ? ? 22 c ;:V: :V ? ?V : ? g? ? cgc ? ? cC ? c c ; :V12^:2^: -:^::^: ? c ? ? c : : ?12^:^c c _ c::2 :^::: ? 1C cC ?V 2: :^: U:V: c ; ; V ? ? ; ? :2V:1 ^2:V:?_? ; ?; ^ ;_?_;c; : :_:^;:^ ?_; ;?_^;c;_;;;?: ; ; ; ; _c ; ? ::V ^ ?^1 ? ; ? ? c ; ? ? ; ; ? c ^: c ? : ;:2 : ;1 22^: cC ^ ? ? : cC U:2^:_:_c cc :V:U2^ ? 2^212^ ;?:; 21V:: ? ? ; c V:2^2 6V: ? : ; cC 2- c^1:V ; ; ?C ^ U_? C ? ? ? ? ? ? _ ; ; ;cc; ;; ;_c?_?_ cgccg :V2^ ? cc c 2- cC 2 _? ? cC ? ? ? ? c c V: ? ; c; ? ? cc -: ? 1V2B c: ? ^:;:^c ? _ :2 ? ?1 V: ? ^;:V ? ^ c: 2^:^2 ?_ : : _?; ;c; ;_ V:^2U:^ ; _ ? ? ; : ^ _c_c ; ; ?_cg; ? ; ?_ ; ; > _cg_c; ? ; ; ? ; c ; 2? ? ? 2 ? c? cC ? ? ccg c _c ? ? ? ?_:; cC:2:^2 ? ? ? cc ? ?c ? _c ? : ? ? c c ; ? V^ 2 c ? c ?V ? ? ;U --2^ -2 ? ? 1^1U2 c ? ? ; c;? 2:;_?c_? ?;?_; ;?;_: :: ? ; :^: ; ?; ;c_c C c?gcg_? ; ?_?_ ?_ ;? WB;:; ; ? ?;c_?_ ? ?; ? ; :;c;? cgcgc ? ; ? ; _ cg; ;2 V: ; ? ? ? ? c ; _c g cgc ? _ ? ? cc cgc cC c -1: ? c ? ?^ : ? : ? ? c 1^ ; c:1 2^ c:Wb ? _^ 1_ cgc c cc c c c ? ? 2V: ; ;?;?;;_?;_?_:;^;c^? U; ; ;cc_?c?_;_?: 1V ;_;:_;? ?;;c_c ? ?^c;? ;c_c;? ; ; ?; ?_ :_ ? ; ? 2 ;c_cg_ ;? ?; _;; ?2 _c_c; ;? ? ?;_ ; ;? c^;_cgcg_ ? ?:V1 :V^ C ; ; ? ;c;cgc C?gc_c?_cC ; ? ? ;c_c?c;? c? c c ? ? c ? ? ?g? ? _c c ? ? ? ? 1 U cgcgcc ? c cgcccC :; ^;^^ ? ; cgc ? c ;?C ? :V :c cC ? ? :- c; ? : :2: ; :2: : ?^2 ^cC_cg ;_? _?_;? :^>_ ;_c;:_:;:^;^ ;;_cc; _ ?_ :2: 1: _cg_c_cgc? ?; ?_ ; ;? ?; ;c;?;c_c; -^;c_c;^;?^;b;c;?;c;_:^;;;b;_? ? ; ? ?_c ? ?^;: ? ? ?; ?^2V ?C_?c; c_c_c; ? ?_?cg_? ?;c_c g? ; ; ? ? C ? ?_ ? cC ? cc ; ; ? _ c c c gc c cgc c ; ? ? ?_ ? ? c ? ; ?:; cC cC ? : b: c ? ? ? c cC_ ?_ ? ; ?C : _c c _^2: c_c;? ? ; ^; ? ;_ _c ;^;:__ : :c:_:_ ;^::_:; ;;_??;c_c; c ;c;_?g;c;;_?;cg; ;c;c ?_ ;c_c; ?; ;? ; : -2_c__? ?;_;;;_;?_ ;;? ?_; ? _c_c_c_c ; ; ; ? ? C ; ; _^ ?_? ; ; _^ ^ ; ? ? ; ;?C?? ? ?gcc ; ? ? _c c; ? c? ? ? ; ? ? ? _? ? ? ? ? ccg? ? ? ?_ ? ? ? c ? ? ? cC ? c _c cC ? c ? ? cC ? c c ? ? c: ^ c c ? cC ? ? c cgc ? ? : ; ; ?_ ? ;_: ? ? ?_^ ? > ; ;: ?_; :_:;:_;:_ ;_;;^;^ ^;;_;_?; V:;_:__c;? ?; ;c; ;_c_?_;;c_?; ;c_c_c ; ?_ ; ? ^ ? ? ; c_cgc;? ?;c_c; ? ? ;c_c ;c_c;? ? ; :_c ? ; ; cc_? ; ? _c ? ? ? cC ? cC ; ? ? cg cg c ? ? ; ? ? ? cC ? c ? ; ?_? ? ? _? ? C ? ?_ C c c c ? ? c cC c ? -: ? c cC ? ? c ? c ?_:^2: ? ? c C ?__ ?_ ; _? ; ; ^; ? :_;?_?^;:_ ^;;_?;?_;;: ;_;_?;c?;c C ?c; ?;c;?^:;^;c;c;_?_? _c ;? ; ? ?_c_c; ?_ ?_c_ ; ; ?_c_c_c ;c ; ? ?_?;; ;?_ _c ? ; ? ? ; ? ? _c ? ;^; cgc ? ?_ ? ? ; ? : cC cC ; ? ? ? ?_? ? c ? ? ? ? C ? ? C ? ? _ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? c c ? ? ? c_ ?_? ? ; ? ? ? ? ? ? ccg ? ? ?g? cC cC cC cC ? ? c cC cC -: ? c ? cgc ? c cC ? ? ?_ ? ; ?c_ ? ? ?^:c ? ;_^; ;_;? ?_;:_:^ _:_;_;;c;_;_; ;_;_;;_?;? ?cC;_?_;c;;^;;_;?; ; ? ?;c ; ?_cc ;c_?_ ;?_?;c;;_?^; ;:_::;^;?_;^;c;_ ; c_cg; c; ; ;_? ? ;_ ; ; ? ; ; : ?_c_ ; ?c_c ? ;?_c C_c ? _cg ? ? ? cc g ? c? ? c? c ? C ; ? ? ? ? ? ; ; ; _ ? ? cC c cC c c cC ? ? cC c ? ? ? ? ; ? ? cc c? ? cC ? ? cg_ ?_c C ; ; _c_c ? ?; ?_?;;c_c_c;_;?_:;;_:;^;_;?;;_;;;;_;?; cg; ??; ?; ;;c_c; ;?_cc c ?C ;c ? ?;;^;;^;;:^:;^:_:_:; ;c;c;;c;;_;;^?__c;^ V:;_;;_?;^ _c?_ ?; ? ? ; ? ?c ? c? ; __ ; ? _ ; ; ? ?_c ; ? ? ? ? ; cC ? _c ? ; ? ? ccg? ? ? ? _cg? c ? ? ? ? cC ? ? ? c? c ? cC c ? C ? c ? ? ; ? ? cC c ? g ? ? g ? ? ? ? ? c cc ? ? ? ? ; ? ; c ? _ ? ;_;c;c?;;c;;_;;_;_?_;;;_;_?_;_ ; ; ?_c ? ? ? ?C ?^;^_^::^;^: ? _ _:^;b::_:_ :_ ;C^:6_?_c; ;c_ :V ;c_c C: : cg; ; ? ; ; ? ;? ; _ ; :_ :_:: ? ; ? ? ? Cc ? ? ? ? ? ; c ? ? ? cc ; ? cg_c cC ? ; ? C_ ? ; ? ? cC ? ? ? c ? c cC ? ? c c c c cc cgc ? ? ? ? ? ?C?C? Cccg ? ? ? c c ? c ? cC ? c? ? c c ? c ? c ? ? c? ^:;^cC ? :V ?c;;;;_cc;;_??_?_?;;c?_?::_;? ? : ; ; ? c_ 2::_ ? ;2 :1--:V ;;^:^ :_;^::V: 1^_?^2V _c ? ; ?; ? ?^; ; ? ? _c ; ? _c_ ? c? ? ? ? ?_cg? ? ;?_ ? C ? ? ?C ? _c ? ? c _ ? ; ? _c ? ; ?_ ? ? cc g? ? ? ? c? cC ? c ? cg ? c ? ? cg ? c ? c ? ? ? ; -: c c ? c c ? ? ^ ::? c^;^: ? ;^ g^::^: ?_c :^::^ ? ; ? ?_:? ;^; ::^;V:; ; ?_ ?_c g;^:2 ? c_^2^:1 U::^:V:U2^: : :_2^22V2 ? ? ? ?; ; ? ? ; ? ? ? _ ? c ? ; c ; ? ? ? ? ? ; ? ? ccc; ; ? ? ? c; cgcC ? ?C ? ? ? ; ; ? ? _ c ? ? ? ? c ? g cC ? c c? c c c? ? ? cC cgc cC ? ? ? >11: ? _: ?_ ?^;^:V:2:> ? cgc ;: : V ; c :V 2^c ? : U2: ? ? : ^:2^ _V-2 ? ? ?_c _^;^:_^ g_b 12:V1V2: :^ ;b: 2:_c^^^ 1:^11 V:^2V2^ C_ ^; ; ?_ccC ;c^; ? ; ; ? ?g_c_c ?C ;c; : ? _ ; ?; ; ? cC_ ? ? ? ? C _cc; ? ? ? ;b_c c C ? ? ; ;? _c c? ? ? ;; c? ?_ ? ? ? C ? ? c ? ? ? cC c ? c ? c C cC ^ ^ ? : ; c ? cC ^ :^: ? :2 2]2^212^c ccg ;1 :^: : cC c ? ? ^:U:V V:2^c 12^2: V; c ;: ; ; ? ?_:c_c_cC ? ; ; ; ;_b; ? ?_ c? ; ?_c ; ? ; ? ; ; ; ? ?gcg ? ; ; ;c_c_c ?_c_c_cgc_ ?; ; ? ; ; ; c ? ; ; ? ? ? ; ; ? ? ? ? _? c ? ? cC ; ? ? c^;^ ?_ ? cC : c ? cc212 ? --: ? c b>U c :V 6^2^^ : cc^:_: ? ? >V1 1^12^: ;2 ;:^2V::V: 1V :2 :_c_?^ 2:_:_2 _cg ;? ;c ; ? ?; ; ?_ :c;? ; ? ? ? :_ ? ?_ ; ;_ ; ?_c ; ?_ ? ?c;c;;c;?_??c??c;?_??c? ;; c_? ?; ? ; ; cg? ? ? ? C ? cc_ cC cC c c c ? ? ?_: ? ? ? C ? g2 ? b2^ c c: :c ? ? :V:^:2^21 1:22^ 2:V:V1^::2:: c;--: : :2 -: ? ;:112? ? ?g; cC 2: c ^ ?^:V: :U2 ? :: ?:_ ? b:^9V6^ ? :22; ? ?; ;? ; c;? ?_ ; ;? ;c_c ; c_c__ ; ? ? ? ? ?_c ;c ; ? ; ??c;?_;_?;c;?_;;_;;_; _:;_;;_?_???c?; cg? ?_c ; c_c ? ? ; ? ?_ c C _ ? ?_cg? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?_ ; ? ccg ? ? ; ? cg c cC c ? ? c? : :^:V: ::2V: :: :- :V: : 2: c^21 U2^: ? -: _ :2 _ ? cV1V ? c:_ _c ;> ; c:2V::^2: 2-2 ?V2 ^ ; ; ;^2U12 _? ;^:_ ? ; ;^1 ?_ ?;c ; ?_ ; ; ;cg; ? ; ; ;? ; ; ? ?c;?_;_ ;_;;_ ?_;;_ _;_;;_?; c_cC_?_c ; ?_c_ ; ? ?C ; C ; ? ? ?_? ; ? ; ? ; ? ? ?C ;c;; ;? ;_?_? ? _cg; ? ? ? ; ? ? cC c c : V; c :V: 2^2^ 2- V:_ ?V ? c: 2-:22 ; ?: ? c :^ ? V? ? > ::2 ? cV : ; ?V::U : :^^^ __ ;:_; ? 2^2;_ ; ? c; ; ? ; ?_ ?_cg_?^?;? ;? ; ? ? _c ?_c_?c_c _c g; ; ? ? _??_;?_;; _?_;c;;c;;_;_ _?;c _c c ; ? ? ? cccC _ccC _c ? ? ?_c ? c? ? ? ? ;? ? ;cg? ? ? ?g cC ? cgc 1: cC ? c: : c::: ? : :;^:^2^^^ 2^: > ^1V:1 _ ? ;2^2 U: ;2 6:2: ;V:_ c :2 ? :2^ ^;^ c ? ;: ? c;^2: ;V: ; cg:^: ? :_2- 2_ ?C 2^ : 2-: ; ;1^2: ? ; ; ? ; C_c_? ; ? ?_ ? ; ? ? ; ; c;^c_:_^ ; ; ;? ; ;c_ ? ??g;c?_?g;?;c;?;c;?g;?;_;?_?C_?; ;_?;_ ;_;_; c;_;_?; ? ?_ ? ? ? ? ? ?_ ? ? _c ; c ? c c cC ? ? cc c; c c? c ? c ? ? U? c c ::^:::V ? ?^:2 ? c cC_? c; :: c:12 c:V:U 2 ? ; : :^c :Vc^2 ? ?_c ; :2: c? ? c cC_? ? c?_c ?^; ; ?_c ? c ; ; ? ; :; ; : ^:; ; ; ? ; ?_c ; _ ; ? ?_ ; cC_c ?_;^; ?; ;c_b;c; c;c ;cg ??c?c?c;_;_;?;_?;?g;c;?_c;?c;?_cC?g;?_?;_?_; _?;_;_;_; _;__;; ;_ ? ? ?;cg ? ; ? ? _c ? ?g; ? ? cg c c ? ? c ? _ cC ? _ ? ? ? _? c: :2 ? ?^;2:^ c : : V:V:2^ ? cg :;:^; : ?; ? ?_ ? cC ?__ cg ? ? ? ? ; ? ? _ ? ; g ? cc_ ? ;: ? ? ;: ; ?__ ? ?; c; ?_cc_c ? ?C_c ; cg? ? ?_ cc ;b;:c; ;c__; ; ?_cg_c_c??c;c;?_;;;_;;; ;;_;c;_?_?;c;?;?g;cC;?;c;?_?;_?; _;;;_ ;;_;;_; _;_;; _;_;_? ?C ? _ ?_?; ? g? c ? ? cg c? ? ? ? ? ? ? c ? ? c? c c? ? ? ? _c c? : ?:_ ? ? c c ; Vg ?C ? ? ? ? : ?;b?c? ? ? ? ? ? _c ? ? c _c ? ? ; ? ?_? _cgc ; _c_ ? ;c ; ; ? ?_ ? ; ; ; ? cc; _ ; ? ?ccc??_?c;c?_?;_;_ ;_;_?_; _?_;c;;?_;?_?g;c;c;?_?_?_?g?Cc;_;_;?_ ;_;;_;; ;_?; ? _c_ ? c ? ?cgcc ?C; c ? ? ? ? ; ? ? g;? cC ? c ? :;c;c;_;c;?;^:;?_??_;cg;?_;?;c;^:;_?;_;?_;?_;;;_;_;;c?_?? ? ? ? ? ? ? c? ; ? ? ? ? ? ; ; cC; ; ?_ ; ? _? ? ? ; ? ? ? ? ?; ? C ; ? ?c_c?g;c;?_?_?c;?_?_?;?;_ ;?;c;_?_?;;c :^;: ;c;c;?;_;;_;_;_;_ ;_;;_;;_?;_;;_;;;_;;;;c;_?_?;;c;c;?_?C?_?;?_?_?; _;?;_;_; ? ? ? ? ? _cc_ ? ?_ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?C ? ? ? ? ??; ; ? ? ? ? ; ? c? ? ? cC ? ? c cg ? ?c?_;c;: _;_?;;_?; _;c;_?_;;_;?;;?_;c;_ ?;;c;;c;?_;?_;_ _;_;_;_;_;_?_?;c ? ? C ? cc cC ; ? ? ? ? ; ?g; ? ? ? cg ? ? ; ? ; _c_ ? ; ; ; ; ; ; ? ;? ??c;??_?_?_;?_;;c;;_;;;_;?_;_?;c;_?;c;c;?c;?_;c; ?_; ?;_;^; ;;_;c;;?_;;c;;_ ;_;_;c;c;_?;?_?g;?;?_??_;c?g?g;?;c;;;;_;c; _;;;;; _;_?;? ; ? ; ; c; ? ; ? ? ? ; ? ? ?? ? ? g ? ? ?_ ? ?;c?_;c;;?_? ; ; ; ? cg ? c ; c ?g?_;c;_ ?_;c?;_?;c;;?_?;c;c;_?_;? _?;_?_?;c;?_; ^;;_;c;cccg ? ; ; ? c_ ? ; ?_c ?_? ? ? ; ? cgc ?_?C_?_?_;;_;_;_;; ;_;_?_ ;_?;_?_;;_;_ ?;?_^c;;_:; ;;_;_?_;_?;_?_;?_;_;_;_?_??;_;c;?_?_;?_?_?_?g;cC;?_??_?_;_ _;;_;;_ ;_;;; _;;c? c ? ? _c ? ccC ? cg ? ??c ??c?c;c;?_?;_;?;c;?_;_;;;_?_; ? ? ? c ? ? cC ? ? ?g?c;?_;?_?; ;_;c;_;_;;_;_? ;;_?;_;?_?_; ??_;c_;?;_?_;;_?;c;c;?_; _;_;c; ? ? ; ? ? ; ? ; ? ?c ? c_ ; ? c c; ; ? ? ?_? ????;c;?;?__?;c; _;?_; _;_;;_;_;;_;?;_;;_ ;_;_;; _;;c; ;_ ;?_:_: _;;?_;?_?_;;_ ;_?;;_;_;?;?_;c;?_?;?_?;c;?_?_?C_?_;?;_ _;;_;_;;?_; ; C ? ? ? ? ? ? c g? ? ? ?C;c;??_?_;; ;_;;_;;_;?_;c?_?;;_;_?;? ; ? ? C _ ? c ?c?_;?_;;c;c ;;_?_?; c;?_;_?_?;c;?_?_;?_?;_;_??;;?_;c;; _?;c;;; :_;_?_?? ??c;?g? ?? ? ;? ? ; ; ; ? c; c ? C ; ; g ? ;c;?_?_;_ ;_;_?;;_; ?_;;_?_;_;_ ;_;_; _?;c_;; _;_;;;?;_?_?;_;;; _;_;_;_;_;c;?;c;c;_?;?_?;c;cC_?;c;;?_?gc;c;c;;?_; _;;_;;_? _;_?C ? cccC ? ? ? ? cg ?c ?C ?c;c;_?_;c;_ _;_;;_;;_;_;?_?;_?;_;c;;?_;_;?;c_c_c c; ? ? ? ? ??_?_;_;?_;?c ;;_;c; ?_;;c;; _;_?_;c;;c;;c_?;_?_ ;_;?_?;;_;c; ;;c_c ; ; ? ? ; ?_cCc ; ;c ? ? ?;??_?_?;_;_;c;;?_?;c;_;c;; ;;_;c _;_;_;_;_ ;_;;;_;; ;_;_;;_ ;;_;; ;_;;?_;_;_?_;;_;c;_;_;; ;c;;_?;_;c;;;c;?_?_?_;c;?;?g;c?g?_?Cc;;;_;_; ;_;_;; _;;;_;_?;_ ? cgcg ? ? cc g? ? ? ;c;?_; ?_?;_;;; ;c;;c;? ?_;;c;;c;?;_?_;?; _ ? ? ? ? ;c_?_?;_?_;?;?_?;_;_?_?; ?_;_? _?;c;_;;c ;c;_?;c;_?_;c;c;c;?g;;c;;?_?_?;c; ;_;;_;_ ;_;;_;_;;c_c_cc; ; ; ? _c C _ cC ? ; ?_?;_?_?_;_?;;_?;c;; _;_;c;;?; _?_?_;_;; ;_?;_ c;_;; ?_;:_;;_;_;?_;_?;c;_;;_?;_ c;;_;?;_?_?;c;c;?_?;cC_?_?C_?;?;c;c;c;? ;_;_; _;?;;_? c_ ? ? cc ? ? ;?g;c;?_? ;_??_;c ;_;_;; ?_;;_;_?;c;;_;;_?_;;c;_?? ; ; ? ?;?_?_?c;?_?__?;?;_?_?;?_;c;_?_?;? ;_?_;_;?; ;_;?;?_;??_;c;?;c;c;?_;; ;_;_; _;;_; ;;c;_?;_;;_;c; ? ? ? ?cC_ ?;c;?;c;_?_;;?_?;_?_?_;;c;;c;?;_?_ _;__; _;c;;_ ^;;_;;_?;?;_;c;;_;?;;_;_;;;_;_;;_;_;;;_?_?_?;?_;c;?_?;?g;?;c?;cC;c?g ?;c;;_; ;_;;_ ;_;_?;c;_;;_;_? ? ;?_?;c;c;? ?_?_?;c;_ _?;_?;_;; _?_;c;;_?_?;_?;_;?_?;_?_;?_;_?;_; ?_?_;_;;_?_;?;?;c;_? _;c;_?;_?;;_?_;?;;; ;c;c;_;_ ;c;_?;c;;_?;c; ;_?;c;_;?_;_?;_?_?_;;c;c;_ ;_;_;_;;_;?_?; ? ?C;?_?g;;c;;c;c;c;;c;;c;c;?_?_;;;?_;?_;_;c;; ?_;;?;_;c;;_; _;_;_ _;;_; ;;_;?_?_;_;c;;;_?_;_?_?;_?_;; ;_?;;;_;c;;c;?_?_?;?_?_?_;c;cC;c;cC;c;?_c;;_; ;;_?;_ ;_;_? ? c? ? ? ?g;c;c;?_?;_?;?;_?? ?;?_?;?_?;c; ;;c;?_;;cC;?;_?;;;_;?C_;c;?;c;;?_; ;?c;_;c;c;_;; ;_?;_?;c;c;;c;c _?_;; _?_??_?_?;?;c;?;c;?_ _;;_;;_;_;c;;;_;;c;c ; ; ? ?_;c;c;_?;_??;c;?;_?;c;;c;_;;c;?;c;c;_?_;?;c;_;_;;;c;_ _?_;?_ ;_?;c;? ?;c;;c;_?;c;_;;_;; ;;_;c;c;;c;;c;c;?_?_?;c;?g;?_?g?_?_?C ?;?_? ;c;;;_;_;_;_?;?;? ?g ? ?C?g;c;;?_?;?C_?;c;_?_?g; ? _?g?_?;_?_?; _;_;_?; _;_;_?_;_;c;;_;?g; ? c;_;c;c;c;_?;_;_;_?_; _?_;;?_;_?;?;c;_;?_?;_;c ;c;;?_?; ?;_;;_ ;c;_;;c;_;_?_?_?_?_;_?_?_;_;;_ ?_?_;;;_;_?_? ? ? ?g ? ? ;?_?;;c;;?_?;_?_;c;c;c;;c;;c;?;?g;c;_;?;_?;?_;c; ;_?_; ?_;;;_ ;_;c;_ _?_;_?_;_; ;_;_;; ?c_c;_?;_;;?;_?_;c; ;_;c;_;_;;c;?_?;;?_;c;?_?;c;?_?_?;?g?_?_?c;_;_ ;_;;; ;_;;_;_ _?;;_;_ c C ;?;c;c;?;c;c;c;c;c;c;? ?;c;?gc ;? _?;;;c;?_;?_;?_;_;;c;?;_;?;c;;c;?_;?_ ?Cc_?;_;;;_?;_;c;?;c;;_;;?_?_?;?;_;c;_?;_;;c;?;;c;c;c;;c;; ;c;_;_; ?_;;_;;_?; ??;c;?_?;;_?;_?;c; _;;_;;;c;cC ; ? ; ;? _ ? ?;c;?_?_;cC_?_?;c;?;cC;;c;;c;?c;_?_?_?;_?;c;c?_;c;;_;c;c ;;_;?_ ;;c;_;;;;_;; _;_;; c_c ; ? ?g_?cg?;_?;c;_;;;_;;;_;_;?_;?;c;;_?_?_?_?;?_?_?;?_?C?g?_?;?g?C;c;; _;;c; ;_;_;_;_;cCcc;?g;?_?_?_?;_?g;c;?C_?_?;?_?_;c;;c_ccC ?gccC?;c;c;;_?;_ _;?_;_;_;?_;_;_;?_;?_;?_cg?C_?_?_?;_;?;;_?_;c;_?g;_?;c;_ _?_?c;c;c;c;c;_?;c;?c;c;c; _;;;;c;_ c;_;_?;c;?_;c;c;?_; ;_;_;; _;;_;c;_? ??_?;_;;_?;;c;;?_?;_?_?_?_;c;?_?;_;;c?;c;;c?;c;_;;;c;;c;;;_;;_?_;c;_ ;c;_;;; _;?_;; _;;;; _;;_;_; ?g_c; ?g_c;cC _;c;?_;c;_;c;;c;?;c;_?_;?;c;c;;c;c;?_?_?_?_?;cCc ?_cc;?_;? _;;_;_;_ _?;?cC_?_?;cC;?_?;c;c;;?_?_?;?C_;c;;_?;c;c; cC ccg_?_cC;_;_;?;; _;?;c;;_;_;;?c; ?c;?gc_? ?C ;? ?g ?g? ??g?C_?;?_ ;_?_; _?;_?;_?;_?;_;; ;_;?_;; ;c;c;;?;_;; _?;c;c;?;?_?;?; _?_;_ c;;;c;;; ? ? ; ;c;;_;;c;?_;c;c;?_?_;_?;?_?;;c;?_?;_?C ;;c;;c;;_?;_?_?_;_;_?_?;c;;;c;; ;_;c;_;_; _;;_;_; cg; ?_cgc_c_c? ?C ;c;?_;?;_;?_;_;c;cC;;c;_?;?;c;c;?_?_?;?_?;c_c;?;?g;?_;_;_; ;?;_; _?;_;_;_?_?;c;c;c;?_?;?_?_?;c;c;_?g;?_? ?_?;_;c;?_ ? cgc;?;?;_?;?_;_;_;?__;?_?;;_?c_g; ;g ?_?Cc?_?c?Cc?_?;c;?_?_;?_?;c;c;_?;?;_?_?_;?_; ;c;?_?;_?;c;;_?; ?_;;c ;_;;?;c;_;?_;;_;?;c;?;_;c;_;_ ;c;_;;_?_?g ; ; ?_cg? ? ?_;;c;?_;;_;?;_;?_?_?;?_?_?_?_?;_?;_?c;_?_?;c;?_?;_?; _?_?C;c;;_;_?_;_ ;c;;;_;; _c ;c ;c_?_cg_c_cC ?g;?_?_?_;?;c;?;c;c;;?_;_?_?;?_;?;cCcgc?g??g ?c;?_;?;_?;;_ ;_;c;_;;_?;c;? ;?_?;?_?;cC_?_?;?g;?_? ? ; ?c?_;;_; ? ?; ;cc_ccg ;c;_;c;;c;?_;;;_;_?_?C;c??c???_?;c;;? _;_?_;?_?;_?;;?_?;c;_;;?_;_?_;;_;?_;c;_; ;_;c; _;;_;;_; _;?;_; _;?_?c;c;;_?_?;c;?_;;; _;_;_;c;;_;_;;c? ; ? 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When mating is over, the harems break up and the cows are left to look after their pups alone. Territory, Mating, Social Organization (2 of 3) Mating It takes more time and energy for a female to produce eggs than for a male to produce sperm. Mating with a poor or sterile partner is consequently more costly for a female than for a male. Females therefore tend to be choosy about potential mates, with the result that males have to compete among themselves for the attentions of females. This is believed to have led to the evolution in males of weapons such as horns and antlers, and of conspicuous ways of attracting females, such as the brilliant coloring and complex songs of many male birds. Courtship is the means by which males advertise themselves and their intentions and by which females assess potential mates. Males are judged either on their ability to provide resources and help for the young, or on their prowess in competing successfully against other males. Whether a male mates with one or more females, or vice versa, often depends on the type of parental care the male provides. Polygyny is the mating system in which a male mates with more than one female. The males often show no parental care. In many mammals, such as red deer and elephant seals, and in lekking birds, the males mate with many females, which are then left to care for the young alone. Some males - red grouse and yellow-bellied marmots, for instance - mate with a few females and defend territories in which the females raise the young. In some cases, where eggs are fertilized externally, for example in stickle backs and the midwife toad, the male may mate with several females and then care for the eggs himself. Where the male is needed to help feed the young, as is the case with many birds, the common mating system is monogamy, where one male mates with a single female. The pairing may be for life as in swans, geese and eagles, or for a single season as in many garden birds. Monogamy also occurs in mammals such as wolves, because a lactating female cannot hunt and the male is thus required to bring back food for the female. Another example of monogamy in mammals is the marmoset. In this case the male helps to carry the twin young, so that the small female can preserve her energy for feeding. A few birds have a mating system called polyandry, in which a female mates with more than one male, with each male then being left to look after his own offspring. This may occur in birds such as the jacana because the risk of predation is high. Alternatively, it may take place where abundance of food allows the female to lay several clutches of eggs in a single season, as is the case with the spotted sandpiper, which can lay as many as five clutches in 40 days. Competition between males for access to females may continue after mating. Male damselflies have a special appendage to remove the sperm of a previous mating from the female before he deposits his own. Some insects and rodents produce a copulatory plug that reduces the chance of other males mating effectively, while in fruit flies and some butterflies the male places an anti-aphrodisiac substance on the females that inhibits mating by other males. * ANIMAL GROUPS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * MIGRATION * HUMAN SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture y1U1U UUyUU] UY11y Q(--T 1M]y1 2Q11U ,1U1U -yUYy1y U1UU1 U11x1U-91U U1q11u1U11 ]11U1--0U1 1y1Q0y 1QUYUU1y y11y1Y-0 U11-11 U2y1-11y U1y1U1y 11UY1y1 11-1- U11U1Q1U11 T1U1U1Q1x1 z1y1y U11,U y11Uy1y- 1yU1y Yy1U1 y11U11y1UU u-9y1 y1y1Q 1U11y VU11U^ 11y)x1y1U 1y-1yU -UU1y 11-U1 PUTQ- U1U1y yUUy1UY ]QUU9 ]y1-T y11U11U UU-11U1 UYU1U 01y11 ,1T1y 11U11-, (U01U11y ])-UQ Q1(1, UU-1x y1y-10Q 21Q1--11U 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(U0PUUxU yTy-L yUt)H PP)y, 0u-P0yUu,Q z1y-U -11U-UP -UP)P) 1u1u] T1y1y, x-y\u 0-x-u QTQQUQ 1x%xUP $QTyQP 1,1y-M\ yTyuP zUU1Q1 $,$xU T1UU1y- P$PPL P)PHPMP -1--T )--11y -,U(- -P11yU] --1y1 T11y1 (t$t,y p168-3 ftsTitleOverride Territory, Mating, Social Organization (page 3) ftsTitle Termites are an extreme example of an extended family, living together in large numbers and performing different functions depending on their caste. Here the queen - enormously bloated with eggs - is seen surrounded by massive-jawed soldiers, whose task is to defend the colony, and by the smaller workers, who look after the queen and her eggs. Territory, Mating, Social Organization (3 of 3) Social organization Living in social groups has many advantages. Important among these is that some degree of cooperation is possible - in finding and collecting food, in looking out for danger, and in defense against predators. One of the simplest types of social group is the family, where both parents remain with the young for a given period of time. Examples of this kind of family are the groups formed by jackals, swans and many songbirds. Some birds - mallard ducks, for instance - and many mammals, such as bears and rodents, form one-parent families where the females show parental care. In the case of some fish and amphibians, it is the male that guards the young. Extended families are formed when the offspring remain and help rear succeeding generations. Ants, termites, and some bees and wasps are called eusocial ('truly social') insects, because they live in large groups and show extreme division of labor, with only one individual, the queen, reproducing. In the case of bees, all other females remain sterile because of a pheromone produced by the queen, while males are required only to fertilize new queens. In a termite colony, different tasks are performed by different castes - the queen, who lays the eggs, and sterile wingless workers and soldiers. Periodically winged males and females are produced, which are capable of reproduction and which leave the nest to start new colonies. The naked mole rat - a species of rodent that lives in large groups in underground burrows - exhibits a similar type of social organization. Only one pair breeds. Small non-breeding animals of either sex dig the tunnels, while larger ones stay near the breeding female, feeding her and brooding the young. Harems are composed of a single breeding male and a group of females, each with her own young. Permanent harems are formed by animals such as zebra and patas monkeys, whereas red deer and sea lions, for instance, form temporary harems that only stay together for the duration of the breeding season. For the rest of the year the females and their young generally form female groups. The males either live in bachelor herds - as is the case with red deer - or they may live alone. Multi-male groups are formed by several animals, including common baboons, hyenas and lions. A number of males and females breed, although there may be a hierarchy in both sexes to determine which animals breed most often and when they will do so. At adolescence male baboons frequently leave their home groups and join another group. A male lion may abandon its own group to take over another group of females by force. The social organization of a species is not rigidly fixed. As with red deer and elephant seals, it often changes with the season. Many garden birds live in monogamous pairs only during the summer; in winter, species such as chaffinches and starlings live in large flocks, while robins, for instance, live alone. Female robins are indeed seldom seen during the winter - their whereabouts is a mystery. * ANIMAL GROUPS * ANIMAL COMMUNICATION * MIGRATION * HUMAN SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ,]U\U 1UTU0 TQ01P1 x11P] yU]P]T yTUQT1 H,p,$P U0yT1U00u\ L$t,p,PTy,TUTTP1 x1x]UP U]P9y0 ,]1P1P9P-Ty0T- $,L$x,t( Uxy0P (01x10U0 1T1P] 1x9]-t U-TUTTy 1x]-, ,p,LtHLttP U0UU]- -TUx9TU,1T1U,9 1P01T] $PPxP PP(l\ TU0Q0 y\Qy1T9Pa-x1Q0 P,9x11x L19P1T ,]]L1 ptPyPL Ux1P1 x1xUTU U0-x]Ty $,tPpPt ]1T1U0y 1TT-0y1x1U11PT] 1UTU, -T1U0T y8-UUT-T-01P]- y\U01 TU,T-x- 1TTU0U4 1U,U\ 0yUx9y0U]1T11x1y ]UTU1 UUTy]U, )01y1 U-,UT- 1PUT00y0y]y0y 1(UTP1 T,9-0-U T10U] 00U0U]1T1 T1T1yT]Ux 1T,9y0-T] 1-0-1T U]U]y0y 0yTUx 0P\U0] 1LUT1y\ y-x1, p10PTU 0UTUU U]TyU P10UT ]U,y0 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many being drowned or swept away. At the beginning of the wet season, wildebeest migrate in large numbers across the open plains of East Africa in search of water and fresh grass. They are able to sense rain up 100 km (60 mi) away. t Migration (1 of 4) Many different animals make migrations - periodic movements from one habitat to another. Some migrants such as birds move annually between summer breeding grounds and overwintering sites, often returning to the same areas each year, while salmon and eels take several years to complete their migrations. Locust migrations occur irregularly, and no individual returns to its birth place. The mass movements of lemmings and voles that occur every few years are often referred to as emigrations or invasions. All migrations involve some active movement by the individuals concerned, often for many days. Smaller migrants such as plankton, aphids and locusts also use water or wind currents, while birds use trade winds and thermal up currents. Migration serves many different purposes. Some animals migrate to escape harsh winters or hot summers, others to find suitable breeding grounds. The need to avoid predators may also be a motivating factor: caribou (reindeer) move from the arctic tundra in autumn to spend the winter in the great coniferous forests further south, where they gain shelter both from the harsh winter and from wolves. Migrating locusts and lemmings move away from dense populations to new areas and new food supplies. Migration in invertebrates Plankton gather in the surface waters at night to feed, but during the day move down to deeper, cooler waters, sometimes reaching depths of 1200 m (4000 ft). Here they save energy, as metabolism is reduced at lower temperatures, and they also avoid the fish that hunt by day. By moving between different currents they may also find new food sources. The small crustaceans called sand hoppers live in wet sand just above the high-tide mark but feed on rotting seaweed higher up the shore. On moist nights they move many meters inland to feed, returning before day to their sandy refuges. Land crabs may travel up to 240 km (150 mi) to lay their eggs in salt water. The migratory habits of locusts are of great importance to man. The normal form of locust is solitary in its behavior. However, when food is scarce or breeding grounds are restricted, individuals crowd together and the migratory form develops. This form is gregarious and gathers in vast swarms, which are carried downwind towards areas of rain and so of fresh vegetation. The swarms invade large areas of Africa and the Near East, devastating valuable crops. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture UUUy1y 2z]uU 1yyUy 1yyYy] 11y1yU UU11P2U11 -0U0y1T yTyUU -1-1- 11--101 UyyUUUUUUU y111U U1-11 y]yTUUUUyU -11111 Uy]yy L1,11 1UyUx 9UT1TQP$ 1y]xU x1UTyTP U1U111111U11 11PVU1-11 1y0P0 y1y0- 1U1111-11 -TU1- 5y0-1y 1U111U1-1 1y1T11U11x 1UY1-11U y]yZy Vy11Y 01-1111TU-y x1UU11U1y1111U1U1T11-11U1U yy]yU 0U1y1YU 11y1y --1-011111U1 111U11y1y1U-11111111T11U1UUy ]U11UU1 Uy11U -11UU0 UZU1y y]y1Uy y]yT]y]yU TyUUUx Ty0U1--0U1T111U1UU1T11PUT U1UY1 1111111-1 11yU1U UU1111U11U11y11011-01U1-11U11UUU1 1Uy1U1T -0111110111U 0UUUU ]yy]y U1UUyU 11-TUU1y01-1y 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:V:Z:^:2:::::^::^6 ^::V:: ^:^2^:2^: 6:V::2^:2^2 :2:2^: :2::2 6^2::2: :2:^2 :^:z: Y:2Y2::2:2:22:2:2:2:2 2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:2:: :2:2: :2:2:2: :2^:2: :^^^2:^: ^Z:V: ^:Z^2 :V::2^ :V::V: :^2:: :2::2::2 6::2:2 :2:2::2:2: ^:V^2 ^2^2Y :2:^:: :^:V: :^::^ ::V:^:^V::Z: :^^:^:^:: 2^2:2^:2::V:2 2:2^2:2 2:2^:2: :2:V::2^: Z:V:^ :2^^^: 2^2^2^2^2^2^:V:V:V:V 2^2^2^:V:V2^2^2^:V:V:^:V:V:^2^:V:V:V:^:V:V:^2^2^ V:V:V:V :^:V:V:^: ^:^:^ ^:^^V:V :V:^2^:V:^2^2^2^2^2^2^2^2^2^2^:^:^2V:V:V:V:V:^:V:V:V:^2V:V:^: :^^^: :^:^:^: :^:^:V:^ :^:^: ^:V:^2^:V :^2^:V p170-2 ftsTitleOverride Migration (page 2) ftsTitle Pacific sockeye salmon battling up a waterfall to reach their spawning grounds. Salmon breed in fresh water, but the young migrate to the sea to feed and grow. After several years the mature adults return to breed, often to their native rivers. All Pacific salmon die soon after spawning, but some Atlantic salmon make it back to the sea and survive to spawn again. l Migration (2 of 4) Fish, amphibians and reptiles Fish such as herring, plaice and cod undertake regular annual migrations. In the North Sea, for example, each population follows a seasonal anti clockwise migration cycle, feeding in one area and breeding in another. Salmon, on the other hand, make less frequent journeys. The adults of the North American and European eel live in rivers, but migrate to breed deep in the Sargasso Sea, an area of warm water in the Atlantic southeast of Bermuda. The very young eels, called leptocephali larvae, remain in the sea for 30 months, then metamorphose into small eels called elvers. These migrate in vast numbers up rivers, sometimes wriggling overland for short distances to reach their feeding grounds. Here they may remain for as long as 19 years before returning to the Sargasso Sea to breed and die. Many newts, salamanders, frogs and toads migrate annually over distances of a few kilometers from their hibernation sites to the ponds or streams where they breed. Some reptiles such as turtles make much longer migrations. Green turtles live and feed off the coast of Brazil but migrate thousands of kilometers to lay their eggs above the high-water mark on the beaches of Ascension Island. After hatching, the young turtles go straight down the beach to the sea and then disappear for about a year before appearing at the adult feeding sites. Birds The most spectacular migrations are performed by birds. The arctic tern migrates between the Arctic and the Antarctic and back each year - a round trip of 40 000 km (25 000 mi). Great shearwaters breed in the South Atlantic and then follow the prevailing winds in a clockwise direction, first to Newfoundland, then on to Greenland, and finally south again in the autumn. European summer visitors, such as swallows, warblers and white storks, overwinter in central or southern Africa. Rather than fly directly across the Mediterranean many birds cross at the Strait of Gibraltar or take a route around the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Many migrants show great feats of speed and endurance. The tiny ruby-throated hummingbird migrates 1000 km (620 mi) across the Gulf of Mexico. There is no chance to stop and rest, and many birds complete the journey in 20 hours. One sandpiper flew 3680 km (2300 mi) from Massachusetts to the Panama Canal in 19 days - an average speed of 164 km (125 mi) per day. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture U111U1 -1U11 :911] ]Q]U1 11U01 91]:U UP1PU -T1P1 -T111Y1 P1U,]] ,U191 ]P0TUQ11T- ]yy1t1UT ]UTPUP ]119U9 UUUT1U,y ^:U9] y0u0(1 9U011 UT1U, y8y1x,P yUTUU TUUx, T1yP: -x100 0U0U0 -U11U 10y-P u0U1, -1]UT1Q T-1-1 x10U0 ]U^9U 11-9] -11:111 ]11]1]U Y]1y: ^:1-1] 19V1U9 b1--1 12U11 1-111U11 11-111 919U--1- :U1-- 1-1U9 1U9U: 111U1 ::]_] U1-1- ,--1- 1]U1191 T1U1U 11U91 :U1-111 T21111 11-1U 11U1U U1111 1T11U1U T1U1]^ U1T19 1-111U :1U1: U111U11U U11U1] U-119 Y1-1- U11U011 U11U1 :U1U:Y 91-1:- 9-1U1 1U111 01U110 11^1]2 -1111U --1U1 1111U -1y19 ----1 1--1111 -111101U1 11111-1 1111U p170-3 ftsTitleOverride Migration (page 3) ftsTitle Monarch butterflies cluster in vast numbers on tree trunks in Mexico, where they spend the winter. In spring, successive broods of monarchs migrate thousands of kilometers to breed on the milkweeds of North America, reaching as far north as Canada. Migration (3 of 4) Mammals Large herbivores such as caribou, wildebeest and zebra are the most significant mammal migrants. On the plains of East Africa, wildebeest, zebra, antelope and elephants gather in huge numbers round water holes in the dry season, spreading out into smaller herds in the wet season. Other mammalian migrants include bats, whales and seals. Seals return each year to the same beaches to breed. Grey whales living in the eastern Pacific feed in the Bering Sea and move south to breed off California, where the water is warmer for the calves but less rich in food. The timing of migrations Migrations are often correlated with regular natural events such as the seasons or the phases of the Moon. Before migrating, birds put on weight and show restless behavior - even caged birds attempt to fly in the migratory direction. These changes are probably controlled by the pituitary gland, which affects weight gain and reproduction, and by the pineal organ, which appears to measure day length and to control annual rhythms of reproduction. The exact timing of departure tends to depend on environmental conditions such as changes in temperature or decline in food supplies. Some animals appear to have an internal clock (probably associated with the pineal gland) that triggers migration at the appropriate time. In European garden warblers the internal clock apparently determines when the birds leave on their migration, when they change route, and when they stop flying. Orientation and navigation How animals find their way during migration is still something of a mystery. Close to the home site familiar landmarks undoubtedly play a part, and geographical features such as coastlines and mountain ranges may be followed for part of the way. Birds may also listen for infrasonic sounds - very low-frequency sounds produced by natural features such as waterfalls, waves and the wind over woodland and hills. Smell may also be important. Salmon can tell the particular river in which they hatched by its smell, and mammals may follow scent trails. Many animals - insects and fish as well as birds - use the Sun as a compass for orientation, thus maintaining a particular direction. Such animals use their internal clock to compensate for the movements of the Sun during the day. Birds can also use the stars for orientation, and both birds and bees use the Earth's magnetic field, which may be sensed by magnetic material in their bodies. Most migrations can be accomplished by orientation alone, but many birds show evidence of navigation - the ability to reach a distant goal even if displaced from their original route. This means that the animals know the position of their home site, rather than just its general direction. They must therefore have some form of internal 'map' of their route, the nature of which is still unknown. It may involve the Earth's magnetic field and, near to home, familiar landmarks, as well as guideposts offered by smell and sound. * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture H2$P^ y0}8H UT1U, PtLTP 819\] TP1u1 ,T1,1(yU UyUx] L]-$H yY1U1 U01Q1T- 10U1T 9]0U0U,T9 0U8\]T] 0]19x9 U8U00 T]T9]0] \UT]]8y TUUT1\y] UT1T1 9-a:] T-U\] xt,(,, ]VUy1 (t,P, ,t,pl $mP-1 IyPtU 0U01xy $tTu, tUyUu -,q1t 1HPtU up-t)t-t( Uy0Px -pPuLu x,MP), ,p,tpuTu, ,UtTty-yU P,yxUtUTP QPyyT P)x1P t(PPU PxuTy1 PPMtMTT UyUyutL Txu(P yPpt1 yyUyPy -L1QT x,uLx 0--yUU lH,U1 -T-1UP Ut0,TQx tpTyT Tyt1u\ -,-y: Q10qU Uy1t1 UT-U0]] Q1U1y 1U1y1y1y yUyUt U1y-QPU P-1y1 UyUyy-0u yy1y-T 1T-xU -1--UT PUu0y U^821 -11U1-U U1-,Ux 1U1QTU PL,M, TU,y1u 0yTyxU t-t(Q ,,MTx Um:]1 P-uUx tqTt(t-y ,pUxQ1 1t-UPuQPP x1tUx upQptuTu0u UT-11 -,)UPyyUxU uPyTy1y0U- PqPpxPytU xUxyT tQTtUxy, -,1yu yPpQxu1 1--T1y uTuxQTUtUy (-U-UTQ yzTyT UxyPUPQPxy yPUU01 0uTuxUux UPUyUt -xQTTu TyQxU ,puPxQ 1UyTy yx-puLtuP 1P)0Q u0u,q,p1tU 0QLUP p,p,(PPT 01-TP, yxQyU q,q,P-t)t) UxxPy, PLP)PPTPU ytMPtMt(tL p,QLQL xPpUPUPL-t -xuxt 1]^^: 1T10UT y9UT]T 10Y]b U99-0 ]\P1x yx1x, 9]9]09] -,-TU 1U,PUy p170-4 ftsTitleOverride Migration (page 4) ftsTitle A garden dormouse hibernating Migration (4 of 4) HIBERNATION AND AESTIVATION While some animals avoid harsh conditions by migrating, others stay at home and hide away in burrows, caves or other safe refuges. This method of enduring winter conditions is called hibernation and occurs in some amphibians, reptiles and mammals. Hibernating animals build special nests or find shelter beneath tree stumps or under leaves. Bats use crevices or may migrate to suitable caves. Hibernators become torpid - they enter a sleep-like state in which both heart rate and respiration are slowed, and in mammals the body temperature drops, often to within a few degrees of the environmental temperature. When the temperature of the pocket mouse's immediate surroundings approach freezing point, its body temperature drops to 2-3 deg C (35.5-37.5 deg F). The hedgehog may stop breathing for periods of up to an hour, separated by only a few minutes of respiration. Many hibernators remain inactive for several months. They use very little energy, and can survive on the fat stores built up before hibernation. Some animals, such as dormice, become active at intervals, and feed on the caches of nuts and seeds they stored away in the autumn. Brown and black bears also spend most of the winter months hibernating, but do not undergo the extreme metabolic and respiratory changes found in smaller mammals. Aestivation is the avoidance of harsh summer conditions. Earthworms hollow out chambers deep in the soil where they can remain moist. South American and African lungfish dig chambers deep in the mud when their home rivers dry up, and can survive for up to six months using air for respiration. The Californian ground squirrel remains underground from August to March, and so protects itself from summer temperatures that may reach 43 deg C (110 deg F). * ANIMAL GROUPS * TERRITORY, MATING AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION * HOW ANIMALS MOVE * ECOSYSTEMS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1Yp1Y $UP1TP ,1\1T- yTTU1 1x190 $0U,M 0M0HU Ux,(U 01T1T] $TUxUTP1T1P0y,y, $TUT- yPL1PUxPu\yTT1$1 Ty01x aeUT1} ]yTUy 9UP0T \UUT1, \1U0y, y,]0y 1\UTy ]yUy, $0PUT a0tU\U1 P,,QxPy ]U\1xT Uxy00Ux\$ 1TU1y UUTPQ ]]xQT1 P1-(P] ]x]TUU eTy$0 Ux$y1P tUxU\ Uxyxy U,y0-tT T0T1Q0 1]0xU xyU8]P UTUxU U0UTT] xUxxP- ,y0Q\ 10Q0-U ]tP(yTx1t TTQT,LUU-0 (1-T-U-y,,uP L-P-P (\xy0U,U U0-]TP ,M,-L ,QyTU0yT1 M,,Q( P1T,U1,y, u0yT,U0P 0t1TP UTQ,-Tx] L,Q-0u11x1UTy-,- t0xxU ,yT0t ,(QTUyx1P, M00UTUT-0y0UTUT 1xUyx-L ,-,U,1,0Q QT-x-y0y1T-T0Q011T, ,Q0QT ,U,Q0U,T x1T1x-x-T1,UTU0y P)P10Q0y0UUy 0Q00-L1,1UUT U0U,U0yUxy0Q 0P1,y LPUPT 9,Q(P 0Q0U,Q0-T1T1,x0y,0Q,yTU1UQ\ u0Q(yP1,M,UUP) P-T1,U1U-0QT 0U1xU0 Mt(Q,,-T1,P ,-(-, T1,0T1xUyTUTy\Uy0 Q0QTQ0P-,1Q0U1y0y -xUxUUTU 0U,P1,1P0U,yxUy UUTy1x1x1y xUT\P x1T0U UT11T1TU0T-0 P-0-,-T-0QTyQ0Q0PU0U1T1xyy1 0yy100-T-T0U10UxUyTy\ 1x10P 0Q0U,0yPUTxy -TyTyx1U,- ,y,U0 1Q0-TU0x10-x1x1U01UUxU 0P1P0 -T-x1U0 1TUTxU M0P1T-0P-,T 0U1xTy\UTyUy U0yTy1P1yx UyUy1y 0U,yUT UyxUyUx1 ,U,,U,1P P0u0P 0-L0U 1x1xyxUx]x]yTUxT TQUTUt U,1P( (TQT-x1P L1P0QT1P,1 U,1UT1U0yUxU ]yPxU x0xUT uTUTU T-,UTQ01TUy x,1,y U0yxUP-T QPU0- 0U0P- yx0y0x-T1P- $1TUU ,L-T-(1T-T1 M,UTQTUU,(Q0Q0- Q0-0Q( QxUT1T1x-xUt ]y]y] -tU,T-T1x-TTu0UTxU T-T,U ,1xUTQ0 0yyTy x1TP-T-0- \UTTUx ,T-1,M0Qx ,UT1y1x TUUTU1yy 1,U,U,QTU -T-TUxUxUUTU ,QTQ(U,U,1xUP P-T10Uxyy1TTU\y yUxUT t0y0Q,1 PU,1, PxyUxyyUTy0y1xyTUT ,,U0,-0 PTU01 ,0U,U,P P,y,(- L1TTU,0UTyUxU,Q0U0UU ]y]ya$ (U,TU -T-x1x T,1QTU,UxUyU ]1U,y1y yTyyy9y]y 0t1TUx UT-,y T-1TQy1t -0Uxy0yx UUy]yU UUT-xxTU0y ,y0P0y\ PUT,- UxUTyTU, UxUyUx1 yx101U] xUyx]yxUx UTy]yy L-P,, yTTuxUy1yx T0xUy Uy0y1 xyx1x11xy,TUU 0U,M,M 1yUUTy ]Uxy]xy1 ,U0TU, tUtT,L yxTy] UP1xU M0UQTUP yU\]$ 1x-TPP 1TUxyUT1x PUT1- -P0y0 UxUU1y xTUy\QTy Uy9yT xUyTU0yU ,L1P1,1T U,U0UT1 11T10y y]Uy0U ]yU0U0t yUy0U\ U,QT,1yTx1 x1x-P1, P)T-TyTyU xU10U0UTy 1]yU\UxUy Q01Px0yy xUyxy ]xUU1T U(1P10U0y-,P11T1P11xyU 1T1y0yUyy\yU UyUTU 0y0y01yT], TUx1x1,Q0P, PUTUU0y\Ux1, 110y] P-T,P P1TyxyTy1 y,QTx-T UU1U1y q,UPP P)x,y yUxyTQ U,U-,u0yUU0yTyy0 9y]U0 9yTU1y] yUP-T- P,-0,y,T1TyxU yTU0,U01T10U0y1xU]Uy 1TUT1x1x yxUy10 $1t0tU (-,Q0xQ-TU0- 1-T,-0U1yTUy0U0U UyUTUU] y]yyyTyT ]x11U0U1 TUyPU )t-TT1 y]xU]yT P0-xy0y yxU1y Uy0y1x] y\y]Q0 )yyUxUU1y9 -L,U0Q UxUxUUUxU -xUy1xy 1xx]y,1y yPQ0y 1xy,1T x1-,- 1,TUx TyTyUx]x1 y\yy9 -x,yTUx-TUPUt)Ty y0UxUxUU0 U0UUP0UQT,U1xyTy xUTUUU yUP1x ]y9U0- uTy,TQT- TUQ0y UTUxy1-x Uy1Uy1 ]y]x]y-\U U\y]YU y]yU1 TPUxUTUTU TyxyTyyx1- ,-TPM,y0U,( Ty1UUxyUT UUTx1T P)x-P1PQ 1x001y Uy,U, ,T1x-x,0 1yyUy U9]yT x-Uxy 0-x1- Uy1P1t1xUU0U1TUxy ]y9x] 1TUU1 y-L1PUxxTQ 0TUTUT1U0y0yTy1x ]xUxUyT xyUy] Uy0-1 MTuTyTx (U,-T-TQ0UT Ux1PUxy\yT ,yTy]x tTUTx Q0xx1x yTUUxUxUxy]xU Uy9T1U 1y,(P QTP1xUU0T1y0yUx P,QTx-0QP x,0Q1 0yx1xU0y1 UU1U-0- x0TQ0QTTUTQP01 y,yTU,,U0 1x1T-U y,L1,P10-x1P1U ,UTyy0Q,1y01y0U, yUx]y yy1TU1 y0u0Q(0-Px1x1x, UTy01x1x1TUU0y1 \y0yx Tyy]y1Y1T1 P1P1P Ux1T1,UTUT P1TUTTyx1y0UT yyx]y]y1T1-1 -0-T-0P1x10U0yTUU0T1x1yUTUT- -xQ,U$ PUyxUTUUyxyUxP 0U,-,y xU01\yT T-0PUxU0-UT yT-P,x- y1x1TyT 1T0QT1 TU1yU x,xUx1P U0yyT1 0P1u0xUy 1T01U, ]x]y0Qyyx] ,0P0t1 UUT1TUx] \y]U01 P-x11P1, ]y91UU yTP1Q Ty1TUU 11T-- ,)TP1 y0Uy01y9 118U]] U1TU\ 0uT1TU ,1xyUPUy xUT]x]x1y yUQ1x QTxU1TUyTy 0y]yy QxyUT ,y0,Q 0U1x1xU yTy1T1y0 0U0-0 01U0U\1PU y1-UU01y }101T Q01x,UT10 1,U10Q0-0y- Q0y]Ty -T--, 1p0UTx1yT 1T-xU 0yy0U ,UT]TU] 10U\y 9x1-T1 -0-11TU ux1U0U0 UTUUP1,U0T y01UT-TU 1Tyt1T-- 1,P10Q,-T ]yy]]-xUy\y -]x]y1 0U\U1y1 0U,1U UT1-0Ty, T1TyU yy0u0 ]yy0yUUT 0y]x1,P1U1U01P TU010U 01\U-U UUx]U 1x1Q( xUT1yy, U,y,y0UTU U0yxy]TU, UT]y1 TU0UQ 0U,y- y0yUU1x yTyUT 1TU8U Q0Q0yU TUUT1xU ,UTyTUTU y1x1TU xyy\U yx,1y0U1yxyU- 1TUx]x]x]xU 0y0yTy]P1x TyQ(P-T xUxUxUx1xUU Ty\y]y0UUx y,1y01UTU0y PUYy\ 1T1,U01TUUUx 0y-1yUTUTU0 ,yx1x1U 0-1T]x1Ux1y0y UxUxUQ TUU0UUY1T T10U1U01U01Q pT1y1 yUTUy T1y1T ,P(-P]Qp PUU-ty1x] yy0y, ,L-yTu UUU\U] y]x-xy, 01,Ux U0,T,- 0-U\1 x-0xQU,$Ut UTy]y9 ]U119T T1,yT (-0TUx1 ]y0-x] )P111 y0U01P xUx11P1P xy10T-x UxUUTU -P10UUx10yT -,1P-TyT1TU UyTUTU U,y\y UTy1- xUP,M\ U]U0x]y] x1xUU ]y1yU- U0UTy 11T1yT UPUTU Y1T11U Q0-xT y,yTy\ P1T1y ]UUy011 -$-T0Q( y,Q(, 1Ux]yP-x ]U111 ]yTx-x,P ]yTyxtUxTQ( 1,Ux9 ,yTuTuTU, 1T-x-tTy0P) Ty0U-P1x-L0Q(P)P TUPUy 1xUU00y,T,),Q UT1,U0-,M 1T-T-T-L ,U,(Q y0yUxUP Q0-yxUyxU t1xxU M0-xUy Tyy,PT ]0901- TQ(U,yTy yTQ(y t1xTy ]Q0U1T Q1,PTyy xTyT- ,M0,M01yT 0QTUyT xyUyTuT U0U1TQ )P,M, yTyTyxy- ,y,yxU yyTyPt UPQ0- )P,0$TU0yTU0yT, y0yTyU UQ(Q01xP yx1xytUTTy0 M010U- ,1,-,U,y0yx U,T,0t tUx-x1UxyU -y,U,UTQU U,U,TTyTxUxxxQT yTQ,QTyTyT P,T-P,UQT,1P( y0yQL1 UTy1yTyTyy 1T10U0U,-yT1x-TU 0PU0u 0Ux1tUUxyT T1,U, ,xyx0U0 uT]-0y UU0x1P yx1yTy YUyTyx yx]UTy P1Q]yUx -TU]y ,Ux0-0 xyPT1y\ UyUUTUU] 2T1UU ]x]UL PUTUTU y0yTU0, x1x-0 U-pUU TUTU,U UxUxU t10u(T y]yy\ ,]x]xyxy Ty1x0 -1y1y yUyTyTyTU-y 1xe$P 1]]TQ 0y1y0U0 xUT10y1y 8Uyy0U10U :T1UY ]Uf-5 P,-0y y]U9y1 0-TU0u 1T1P] -01UT y0U\- \1y0U $1x-TU 1y0TUx ty0UQUUx U1,y] ]\UUP 0y,]P x-0-Tu -T1`- 01T1U 00U0U0 xPt1T- 10y0x xP-TY ,1UP1,- 9x]UTU9 T1xy\ UT]tyT Uxy0xP -T0Q,y]xUP1 p172-1 ftsTitleOverride How Animals Move (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Cheetahs are the fastest four-footed animal, running at speeds of over 60 mi (95 km) per hour. How Animals Move (1 of 5) All animals need to move at some stage in their lives - to find food, to invade new habitats, to reproduce. Many move actively, using muscles and skeletons or fine hair-like projections. Some creep along the ground or swim through water. Others fly or glide through the air, or burrow through earth, wood or even flesh. Certain animals are carried passively by wind or water currents. Such animals often have projections such as fine hairs, or are flattened to increase their surface area. Jellyfish can move themselves through the water by pulsations of the bell, but they can also be carried passively in the surface waters over great distances. Some very young spiders move by 'ballooning'. Climbing to the top of a twig or branch, they produce a fine silk thread that is caught by the wind, so carrying the tiny spiders away. Movement in very small animals Single-celled organisms such as amoebas move by flowing. The outer jelly-like layer of the cell is converted at the rear end to a fluid, which flows forward and is converted back to jelly at the front. Other protists have either a whip-like structure called the flagellum, which undulates, or rows of hundreds of tiny hair-like projections called cilia, which beat one after another, so that waves of movement sweep across the organism's body. Tiny flatworms crawl over surfaces by beating rows of cilia in a fine film of mucus that they secrete. * ANIMAL GROUPS * MIGRATION * HOW PEOPLE MOVE Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText WTN.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "WTN" defaultPage fName ).tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Cheetahs ]|]]^]^ ]|]]X ^W]^W] ^W]|] ^W]]^ W]W]]W^ ^]X]W]|]X **++* ^{]W]^ ]^{^] X]W]W^W]^ W]]X] ]W^WW ]|]W^]]X]W |]]W^]W]W] ]W^W^W {]]^W] ]]|]X |]^{^ W{^{W ]WXW{{ XWW]WX {W{ W {WW{X ]XW{W{ X]|^W]WW X{WW] {]|W]{ {W]|W {WX$W ]WWX{W |]W{^ XWW{WW| {W]WX XWW{]X WW{W{ WXW]X W{W{W{ WW]W{X W]WXWW{ XWW]W{W]{ {W{W{WW{W] W]{]X {WW{W{W{ {^W]X {WW{WW W{W{WW{ XWWXWWXWWX {W{WW{#W XWW^W WW{&W {W{W{ W|W{W{WW{ {XWX{WWX{ {WWX{ {W{W] {WWuWQW{ X{WWX{ |W]WW |WW{W {W{W{WW {WW| W {]{WWX X{WW{ |WXW{ {]|W]W| W{WW]| {WXW{ {W{WXWW| {W]W{WW {W{WX{WXWW {W{XW WW{^W XW{WWX X{]|] {W{WW{ W {WW{W{]|W] XWW] W {W{WX {WXWW XW{W{WW |W{W{X X{XWWX WW{WXW |]W|W]X W{^W|] {^W{]WW{^ {]|]| W{WW{ {WW{WWX {WW{WWXWXW X{WW{X]|W |^{]{ ]WW]W {{W{W W{WW{ {WW^{ XW{W^W{]X WW^WWX {W{W]X XW]{X {WW{W{ ]W{WW{ {W]W{WW{ |W{W{X X{WW{X X{WW|]X W{^{]| {W{WX X{]{^{ ]{]|]|]{^{ {]W{X{ {W|WX WW|W{W W{WW|W |W]WW|WW{ X{WW] {]|]W {W|]W^W]W |]{]{ {^WWX{WWX WX{WW ]{^{]X ]{WW]{]X{W |]|]| WW{XW WXW{WW{ {]{WWX{W] ]|WW|WW W]{W]{X X{]WX |]{W{ ^{^{^{^{ X]{WX {XW]{XW^ |]W|W]WW|] W|]W|]W{ W{WW{W |WW{WX W|]W{ W{]WW{WW ]{W]|W]{^ ]{]{] WXW{W{ W{WW{WW {W]W{ |]{XW| XW{XW W|]W]{W^W{ X]|]W ]W{]WW{ {W]X{ WW{WW{ |W{W{{]WW WW{]W{ {WW{W {W{W{ X{WX{W|WWX {]{]W {W{ W {W{WW{ XW]W{W {WW{W W]W{] {]{^W{]W W{]{^{ |]|]| WW{W{W{WX WXW{XWW{ {WW{WW{WW{ W{WW{WW|W] W{]W{W X{]|]WX]{^ W{WW{ WW{WW{ {W{W{WW{WW {WW|W| XW{WW W{]W| ^{^{]{ {W{W{W{W W{WW{WXWW{ XW{WW{WW ]WW{XWWX XW{WW X]WW]{WW{ W{]|W]W |]|]|] XWW{WW{WX |W]W{]{W{W W{]W{]W{W W{WW{]W{ {WW{WX WW{]|W^{W |]{^{ {W{WW^{WW{ WW{W{W| W{]WW{W {W{WW]{WW |]|]{ W{W{WW{W {WW{W {WW{]{WW {W{WX {]{]{W XW]{W]{ {W{WW{W{W{ XW{XW{WW XW{WW{WW|W W{WW{]{X |W]{W W{W{WW{W{W W{]WW W{]W{ {]W{X W{]{W W{W{W{W {{W{W{ ]W|]W |WW{XW W{W{W X{W|W W]{WW{W{W X]W|W X{]|W ^WW{^ {W{W{W{ W{{W{WX{WW ]{]{]W XW{WX{ {W]{W XWW{WW W]W{W{X {XW{WW{W{ {WW]| WW]X{W |{W{W{WW{ {W{WW{WW |]W{W|W |WW{W| W{W]W {{W{WW{ W{W{]W X{]{WX ]|]]| {WW{WX |WW{WX WW{W] {W{W{W {W{W{W{ {WW^{WW{ {WW{WW|]{{ W|]{W^W{WX W{^{]W{]W W{WW{W{ {WW{W{WW{W WW{WW {]{WW W{]WW WW]WW{ |]{W| {WW{W{W{W{ W{{WW{ {WW{WW{WW WW|W{ {]WW{WW{WW {WW{W {^{]{^{^{ W{]{^{ WW{W{W {W{W{W{W{W {WW{W{W{ {W{WW{WW{W W|]WW{W{ |]{]{]{{]| WW{W{WW{W{ W{W{W{W{WW {WW{WW{W{ WW]WW ^{]|]{ {]{]{]| |]{^{ {WW{W{W {W{W{W{{W{ W{WW{WW{WW {WW{WW{W{W XWW{W{W{ {W]W^{^ W]|WW {]{]| {W{WW{W{WW {WW{W{W{W{ {W{]W{WW W{W]W{W{W W{W{W {]{^{]{^{] {W{W{ {W{WW{ |]{]{]{^ {WW{WW{W{W {W{W{ XW]{W W{WW{ W{^{W W]W{]W {]|]{^ {W{{W{W{W{ WW{WW{ {WW{WW{ {W{WW{W{ {WW{W{ {W{]{WW]|W {W^W{WW {WW{W{W{WW {WW{WW{ W]W{]W W|W{]{W W]{^{ {{WW{WW{ {W{WW{W{WW {W{W{W{ {WXWW| {]{]|]X WW{W{ {W{W{W{W{ {WW{W{W W]{WW {WW{]{W {W{W{ {W{WW{WW{W {WW{WW{WW{ XW{W{W {]{W{ |]{]| {W{{W{WW{ W X{WW{WW W{WW{ {W{WW W{W{W{ ^{^{] {W{W{WW{WW {W{WW W{W|WWX{W W{W|W X{^{W|]{] ]{]{]{]{^{ {W{{W{WW{W {W{W{ {WW{W{WW W{W{W W{W{]{]{] ]{]{]{ W{WW{W W{WW{ W{WW{W{^ {]{W| {W{{WW{ W{WW{ {W{WW{W {W{WW{{W ^{]|]W ]W]W| {{WW{WWQ QW{W{ {W{W{W{ ]{^W{ {W{WW{WW{ {W{WW{W{WW W]{]{ XWWXW{W {WW{WW{ {WW{W {W{W{W WQWQWQ{WW{ W{WQWQ{W{W {W{W{ {W{WW{WW{W {WW{W{W{W{ W{WW{W{W {WW{]{] |]{W{X {W{W{WW{W{ {WW{W p172-2 ftsTitleOverride How Animals Move (page 2) ftsTitle Jumping is both a rapid means of moving from one place to another and an efficient one, in terms of energy consumption. As well as frogs (such as the edible frog shown here), kangaroos, grasshoppers and fleas all hop or jump by rapidly straightening their long powerful hind legs. How Animals Move (2 of 5) Muscles and skeletons Most animals move by using muscles that can contract and so are able - when anchored to a rigid skeleton - to move parts of the body attached to them. As muscles are capable only of contraction, not extension, they are generally arranged in antagonistic pairs, where the contraction of one muscle extends an other. In vertebrates, skeletons are internal and made of cartilage or bone. Invertebrates such as insects and crustaceans have hard external skeletons, while others - worms, coelenterates and mollusks, for instance - have internal fluid-filled (or hydrostatic) skeletons. Crawling Animals without tails, fins or legs move by alternately shortening and lengthening either the whole or parts of their body. Leeches extend the body by contracting circular muscles running around the body while attached to a surface by a sucker at the rear end. The front sucker then attaches, and the body is drawn forward by contraction of longitudinal muscles running the length of the body. In earthworms the body is divided into segments, each with its own set of circular and longitudinal muscles and hydrostatic skeleton. When the longitudinal muscles are contracted, the segment is short and fat and pushes against the ground, being anchored by means of mucus and tiny bristles called chaetae (or setae). When the circular muscles contract, the segment is thin and elongated. During crawling waves of contraction, first of one set of muscles then of another, pass down the worm's body. When burrowing, the chaetae at the rear end anchor the body in the burrow while the front part pushes forward between the soil particles. Slugs and snails have a single large flat foot. Waves of muscular contraction pass over the foot, lifting small areas off the ground and moving them forwards. In many snakes the body is thrown into waves that travel from head to tail. At the crests of the waves the body pushes back against the ground, so moving the snake forward. In sidewinders, first the head and then successive sections of the body are moved sideways. * ANIMAL GROUPS * MIGRATION * HOW PEOPLE MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -01]UT1] 8y1T, 1T1T1\T UT1,T 21U0]00 U]T1Q ]\1\]" Q8U11\19 1T10U 0T]yk T101T0 P`U800 1]0]T T19T9 011T] 90]0Q U\]0]]1 101T]0 ]Tx1U 0U1T8 91T1T0 T01x7 1T11\ ]]U0U0Q0PT -xUT1xPQx0 1T,TUTUT1T UT,P( 1-T-T1 T1T1,1, UT00U-T1 ,018y0U]0U 0U0,UT y1\PQ ]]1]1 UT,P; \U,L,PT x,1xP \0T]1 TxPxU UxT,P( (P,L,,y Uy,U,,xy L,txPp,$ 8UT0,,U $8P,(PTt TPPTt y0T1P, 0Q01P 0tTPU 0t,txPpT t(P,p ,-0y\ PPTxQ,t (,x,Q ,xPLTtx, PTyTt0 P(T10P ,PU,L L0-T, ]-0U1 8U9T1 1T8U0x y0xUT p172-3 ftsTitleOverride How Animals Move (page 3) ftsTitle The fluked tail of a blue whale. Propulsion in water is most commonly achieved by powerful strokes of the tail, pushing back against the water. Tail movement in fish is from side to side, while the tails of marine mammals such as dolphins and whales are set horizontally and are moved up and down. How Animals Move (3 of 5) Movement in water Long aquatic animals such as lampreys, eels and water snakes swim by throwing their body into lateral undulations that push back against the water - the method of movement probably used by early vertebrates. In most fish, however, the tail is the main propulsive force. This pushes sideways and backwards against the water on each stroke, driving the fish forwards. The fins keep the fish stable and are used for fine adjustment of position. Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins use a similar method of propulsion, while walruses and seals flap their hind feet from side to side. Rays and flatfish move all or parts of their body up and down when swimming. In rays these undulations run down the side of the broad lateral fins, but in flatfish the whole body is flapped up and down. Some animals row themselves through the water - sea lions use the front flippers like oars, while water boatmen (a kind of insect) use a pair of legs covered with fine hairs. Penguins flap their flippers up and down when swimming, and almost seem to fly through the water. Squids and their relatives move by jet propulsion. Water is drawn into a large muscular-walled cavity, and then forced out in a particular direction through a narrow flexible funnel. * ANIMAL GROUPS * MIGRATION * HOW PEOPLE MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture );^:U ^:^2:^: ;:>V1 V:^:c?f $M$ 1 ,,-:Q ^> k? cf::Z ^?_:: ^21:: cbk:> :^ :: :b cf > : bc? >_b 0 >_f g _ :^6 : >^? _^:^: b> : b:b:; b^;: ^ :;Y:^ bcb ::_G~2 ^^ b_>; -^:^> :^:^: ::b ^ >::: ^ : ^ b: b b?b_b M:;2b^ bf^ :b::^ ^Z^2^::^ :^:^: ?b?> :_:^: ?^_: _:c: : Z :>_ :b_^; b ::_: 6Z2:~: :c^c :c:^: b ^ : >: bg : ::_ : ^b>^ ^:> ^? :> ^b ^^^c:^ : : :^;:_:^ ;^ b ^;>: :c >f::^b 6^:b bb :: ; :c^:^: >_> ^: > b^ :b ::c ^>_b ^ ^ 2^2 ;^:;: b:>^> f : ^c^V :_:b : ::7 Z 6: b:^: f b : b ?^c 6Z:6: : b > ^::^b b_^c b : b _>:c:cB : b^^ > b^ > ^::^:7 ~?: ^ :b;^b :b: :c2 ?^bf;^ ^ ; : ^_ :^:^: ^:b b^:^>: ^b b:>_ :^::^Z^: : :;^ >_>V : :_: b^>> _>_>b _:;b:;: 6^:^6 :_^c:^ :>_>^ :_>^ b^b^; ^^:_ :^>:c: ^:b :^7 >^;^>?C:>c b::_> ^b;b; Z;^^; : >^ b bB >2:^; ^: ^ ^6:c: ^ b;b c:_:^2 :c: b ^b: : ;^ b ^^^b Z^b;: _:^ : _b^ >^ 6^:Z:^:^ ^ : _>^?^ : :^: ^ ^>: : b_>^:b^^^ ; :;^: : Z:^: ^:^:: >^: bg ^>^^^:_: Z: :> : ^c:_:_ f:>?: ^ :?^: :: : b ^?:_: ^6 : : ^:6V: ::^::^ _^?^:: ^^: ;Z^_:: ^ ^_ : ^^:^:_ b : b ^::::^_>_b^c ;^;^:; Z>_> :_ ;::^ ^ ^:^:^ Z6:^Z ^_::; ;^:b^^ ;b^^; ::^;^: :c:^_^::^: ^:_:^: ^::b:^: Z > b :^b^^ ^:^:; b^; ^::_: ^;b^ ^ : ^^:^:^ ^:^:: ^ ^_>_ _::^:: 2::^^^b^: ::_:_ : ^>_ ?^ : :^: ~>:^: _^ : _> ^ ^^b^ b^: f : ^b: ^:^::_ :^:^:^: :;^>^:^^:^:^;: :c^c^b^c^ Z:^:^^^ :^ :_ :^:_: :^:V: ^_^b_ 6b_b_ ^?^:^:_ ^:^^^:^ ^;:Z; ^:_:c^c::^_ >:^:^^::^: ^^:^_ ^:^:: ;^;^:^: : ^^ : : ^;:>^^;b; ^ :b;b: ?^^ : :b:b b:_:^: ^::_: ;:;^;^ _: :; :^>_: :^_::^ ;:^;:V :;^:_ b:?^;^: >_:^ : : ^cb _: :b:^>_::^?:^:_>_ :_::c 6^ : b ::^:c ^:^^: :c:;:?^:;:^:: ^>;b; ;^;^_ : :^; :_:^:;:^> ;b::::^:_:^: ^ :_>^b_b :_>_>;> :c^_b:_ ^:^:^;:^:^:: ^:^::^ _:^_:_:_ ^;^:? :> ^ ^;:_: :^:^:^ ^:^_:;^: _:;:_: :_::~_>^:_:_^ ^:;^:b :_:?:c: ^:^;^: :b;^;: :^:^;:_ ;^:^^ ^:^:; ::^::^ >:^:: ^:^:_: _:;b; :_::^:^? >_^ :^ ^;b:_:;^;b :^;:^ ;:^;^: : ^ ^ ^ : ?b^?b^ :^ : ;^>:^ _::_: >_:_b: :^ bb _:^ : : :^::_:^ :^>^:;^ ^;:^::_: :>;^ > : : >_:^; ^^;>^^ :>;^:: :_:; ::_:_: ^:^:: Z:^::: :^:^; _:^;>_ :_: :^?^ :_ ;^_^: :^>^:^^ :;:^_:b; ;^:;> _::c:>; :^_: b:_b:> :_:? ^ :^ ::^> ^:;^;^;>;b; ;^:;^ >:^:>_:^ :c :_:^_ ^ :^c:: ^:::: :_:c:_ :^::^_ ^:^>2 ^:_:?b^ :_>_: :^:>; ;b:; : :?:_>^ c:^?^ ^ ^;::^ :^_^; ^;^b_> ^:_::^: :^;^;:^ _^^:: :^:^:: ^:: : :>^::_::c^^: :_:^:^: ^c:^: ::^_: ;^::^ ^::_:: ^;^;^: :_:;^ ::^^ _:b;^ >_b;^> >_:_:b^c:^: :;^:_ _>_:c^c^b; :^;::^ c:_:::_:_: ^b_::^ ^;^::^ ^:; :_:^;^:::: ;:;b: ::::^; ^;^^:;^;^::^: ^:_:^ ^ :?:^; : :b_ _:c::: _:^;:_ ^:^::b:: >^:^:;^; ^:_:_: :;^:^; ^^::_ :c:;^:_ :b?:_>:^ :^::_: _^;^:^^;:^ ^:;^::^ ^:^:: ^;^>:_: ^:?b:;:^ :_:_:;^: _:^>^_^;: :;^;^: :^::^:::^;:^; ^:;^: b^:_>^; b;:_>^ ;::^^ ^: ::;^; :^^;: _:^2:^ >^;^:^ :;:_:_ _::^: ^::;^ ;>_:^ ::;:_ ^:^:^;^:^^^::^> ;^:;^;^: :^:^:: :^:_: ^;:^::^^ ^?^?^^;b :c^b:C^ ^;:_:b^;> ^_b;:b_^ : _:; : ^?^:?^?^? ^b;^ : >_>^>;:^;b :b ^;^:;^ :V^:: :^::^ ::^::^:^:^:^::^:^: :^^^^_ >:^: ::: :^:_: :^:_: :;::c: :b;^>:^ ^:?:^: ;^:^>^;> ^ :^?:;^ :?^:b;: :_::: ::>_:^ :b;>_^c:^; :: :_> :;^; : >_:;Z>_> b:^: : :_^_>^:b_^:^^::b: ::^;^ ::^::^ ^:^:::^: ^_::^ ^:^^^::: ::^::^:^: ^^^^: : :b^:; : : ^ :_>^;> f ^;b :b;:_:^; 6^:_:^>:_:b:: ^:^::^ ::^:^^^::: 2:^^^:^ 6 ^ Z ; ^^c ::^;^: b : ^:^^: ^ ^ b ^b^^^ ::::^:^ ^::^:: :^^:^ ^::^::^:^:: ^ ^ b ::^:^: : ^ ^ _b^ b :^:_b p172-4 ftsTitleOverride How Animals Move (page 4) ftsTitle Fast runners such as cheetahs arch the spine upwards as they run to bring the hind feet as far forward as possible, thus increasing stride length and so speed. At the highest speeds, the hind legs land in front of the previous position of the forelegs. How Animals Move (4 of 5) Walking, running and jumping Movement on land often involves the use of legs. When walking, two-legged or bipedal animals - humans and birds - always keep at least one foot on the ground at any one time, but in running there are times when both feet leave the ground. Dinosaurs were also bipedal and presumably moved in a similar way. Animals with four legs often show various gaits, which differ in the order in which the legs are moved and in their speed. Elephants, for instance, have two gaits - a walk and an amble (a fast walk); horses have four gaits - a walk, a trot, a canter and a gallop. In most mammals walking involves moving one leg at a time - first a front leg, then the opposite hind leg, then the other front leg, and finally the other hind leg. In all other mammalian gaits, such as trotting, cantering, galloping and bounding, two, three and even all four legs can be off the ground at the same time. Long legs and large strides, separately or in combination, lead to in creased speed in fast runners such as dogs and cheetahs. Many reptiles and amphibians have long bodies and hold their limbs out to the side. They bend their body as they walk in a similar manner to the lateral undulations of fish, and move their legs in diagonally opposite pairs. Similar patterns of movement are seen in the fins of fish such as the coelacanth and the lungfishes which are thought to be closely related to four-legged vertebrates. Insects, with six legs, move the legs in sets of three, the first and third on one side and the second on the other. The other three legs form a triangle or rotating tripod on which the animal balances. Millipedes and centipedes, which may have a hundred legs or more, move the legs on each side of the body in order, one after an- other. Depending on the species, waves of leg movement travel backwards or forwards along the body, and opposite legs move either simultaneously or alternately. Frogs, kangaroos, grasshoppers and fleas all hop or jump by pushing off the ground with long back legs. Kangaroos have elastic tendons in the legs that are stretched on landing and store energy to push the animal off as the ten-dons recoil. Fleas and grass- hoppers store energy in an elastic protein in the legs by slow muscular contraction. A release mechanism triggers the recoil of the protein, catapulting the animal into the air. Fleas are the most accomplished leapers in the animal kingdom, being able to jump more than a hundred times their own height. * ANIMAL GROUPS * MIGRATION * HOW PEOPLE MOVE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture \yPy8 T0yyT 0xQxx1 yxy0y\]Ty T01xU xT-T1t0y0Ut TT-8y \y\T1,,Ub T,$x-U -,t,9xH8 H-(-Q Ux0x1y Tx10PU Tyx0U1 UU1T, -xPTtTy ,t(U, 1y0T$UTt0xTTUx tLU10P, TxTtUQ8U yT1txU 0T,x0yU ]]x0x (UTPTU Ty-$Q Q0U,9 tPxP-UU U,LQ1xUPTx1T 8yPUa QUx,t xx0ux- ,M01T1U0T1 x`xy0tU 0y0PP t-x]y UP10Ty ,Q0QQx1 x\x]1 x91T90y T$,LUyU TP,-,, t0-,1 M0y0x, ,T0PP9x1y aPxUxTP0yTxUxTytQM8x,- Tx1\xUU PUTx]1 T]Tx0 UxTyPP-]0P,p-Px axtUT 0yQ\U Py\U\ ,0UUyx-tUU0PU TTyT1TQ0y ,U1TQ L,Hq0 t--1l Uy,Qp, -t0UP1]TP t0tP0T ]$PUT,P y-L,TQ xUP1xx,y ,x,(P PLU\x-0 xU]T102 \100U0y TQ01U T-M0]0 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y0xu\U TUTyxUy Pyx1yTxU00P -9t-0TQx1PP11x ]\x\xTx1Ty x1xu\ 0QUx, 0UTxPUTy U0U1yTPy TTVy9 -y8t0y UTU0UQ Ut1TP1q TtUx,1 ]x-xUyPxQx1yTTUPT x1x,y ]T9QU \y1T1x PU0t,]1t1U1 PT1u] y0x9uUU] x9yUyT yUT\y9x y]\U]U]TU QxPU- UT1TUPUt, u1P-U xU]PQ]xQx \PLy0U 9yQxQ xQxQU 0x-yT1 \y]UUxUt yT19u1-]1y\V1 0x01y1x,yTyPy 1yTPUy0y-PT xTUTt0TPUUx1 p172-5 ftsTitleOverride How Animals Move (page 5) ftsTitle True flight is found today only in insects, birds and bats (such as the flying fox, or fruit bat, shown here). The modifications necessary to achieve flight are very great, particularly in heavier animals. However, the advantages conferred by flight can readily be judged by the success of those animal groups that have achieved it. How Animals Move (5 of 5) Gliding and flight The use of extended flaps of skin for gliding or parachuting is seen in several groups of animals. Flying fish have enlarged lateral fins, flying amphibians use long webbed toes as parachutes, flying dragons (flying lizards) support a web of skin on elongated ribs, flying snakes flatten the body, and flying squirrels, possums and lemurs have a flap of skin between the fore and hind limbs. In these animals 'flight' is more or less uncontrolled and somewhat erratic. True flight occurred in pterosaurs (including the pterodactyl), and is seen today only in insects, birds and bats. These have wings that can move up and down and be held at different angles. When the wing is held at an angle to the air flowing over it, the air has to move further over the upper surface. This creates a lower pressure above the wing and higher pressure below it, thus producing a lifting force. This lift operates in gliding and flapping flight. When the wings are also moved downwards, both lift and a forward thrust are produced. On the upward stroke the wing is twisted to reduce reverse thrust. Birds and bats have powerful chest muscles, attached to large projections on the breastbones, to produce strong down ward wing movements on the power stroke. In birds the wings are formed from extended forearms covered with feathers. In bats, the hands are enlarged and the wing surface is a double flap of skin. Insect wings project between the top and the sides of the thorax. In fast-flying insects the flight muscles are not attached directly to the wing. One set of muscles, running from the roof to the floor of the thorax, contracts in such a way that the muscles pull the roof down wards and so raise the wing through a lever system at the base of the wing. The upstroke occurs when longitudinal muscles attached to each end of the thorax contract, so buckling the roof upwards. Once set in motion the muscles extend each other and then contract at a very high rate, giving flight speeds of up to 40 km/h (25 mph) in some moths. * ANIMAL GROUPS * MIGRATION * HOW PEOPLE MOVE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture LULQ- ,MPM,0y 1U,1x Q0x-xQTy 0uQ0P(QTUP U,y,M P(y0u 0uPT% :11U)- 11Q(Q( PUPL1u )U,U0u0 yy,y,yPx 1-1-11P, 1y1QT- 0Q0PyuTt1 9y1YU,-L ]UUT- xUP-xQT UL-(UUtU U,UQ]y P-PPTUxTP 11011 1x1UUx0ux- ,M-LUyt0x uTU-yUU x,yTxUyUPU xUP,C 1P10y1 TU1Q01U xy-x-x,xPP yt1,U, y11)0-P ,U,QTQU xUxu,yTUyy )1TQ-L ,q1QT 1y,yTQP UQxQ0 -P)P) x-Q0,L 1yTyxTu,uU x1ytUQTTUx -(yU, y1PT1 1tUyx 11P--T )TPy0 PUtUPy,yTU -x1TP)P- uxUPUPUx-p UxyTy 1,M-U,) uTQQTUTUy, xPytUtxU u,y0xUtUQT t1tyT UUTyxyUxy, xtUyxQxxUu -PTQQ 1yU,)-,P Ux1QTQTu UtyTxyTyxP QTt-p,y 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1UQ,1TyUy 0-,UU (1xUy MP--P UUxU1 -x-UU 1MUyy yUt1Q,UU p174-1 ftsTitleOverride Parasitism and Symbiosis (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A common cuckoo being fed by a robin. Many species of cuckoo are brood parasites - they lay a single egg in the nests of a number of host species, which are then left to rear the young cuckoos themselves. To minimize the chances of rejection, the coloration of the cuckoo's egg may mimic that of a particular host's egg. Soon after hatching, the young cuckoo 'evicts' the host's own eggs or nestlings, so that it does not have to compete for the limited food provided by its small foster parents. z Parasitism and Symbiosis (1 of 5) There is no such thing as a truly independent organism. In all ecosystems, animals, plants and microorganisms interact and interfere with one another in a wide variety of ways. Some of these interactions are casual, short-term and unspecialized in nature. Others are the very special interrelationships that occur between members of the same species in family or social groups. In addition to these types of association, however, almost all groups of living things involve themselves in highly intimate associations that form between different species and that typically result in clear-cut patterns of harm and benefit for the organisms concerned. Associations of this kind are generally long-term interactions, often involving close physical contact between the species concerned, together with many adaptations for life together. Two such associations - parasitism and symbiosis - require similar degrees of adaptation for the organisms concerned, but may be differentiated on the basis of their distinct ecological implications. Types of association In parasitism, one species, the parasite, lives in or on another species, the host. Internal parasites are called endoparasites, whereas those living on the outer surface of their hosts are known as ectoparasites. The host is harmed by the parasite. The harm can take a number of unpleasant forms, but the net result of infection by a parasite is that the host survives less well and/or produces fewer offspring. The parasite, on the other hand, benefits from the relationship, usually gaining food or other resources from the host's body. The partnership is therefore an unequal one - the parasite gains, the host loses. Symbiosis, in contrast, is a more balanced partnership. In a typical symbiotic association, the species participating, called symbionts (or symbiotes), derive mutual benefit from it. It is usual for both species to survive and reproduce more successfully when living symbiotically than when living apart. A third kind of association, known as commensalism, occurs when an organism of one species (the commensal) derives benefit from associating with an organism of a different species (the host), which itself receives neither benefit nor harm from the relationship. Barnacles, for instance, attach themselves to whales, thereby obtaining anchorage and transportation, while the whales remain unaffected. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * RUMINATION * THE BIOSPHERE * THE IMMUNE SYSTEM * INFECTIOUS DISEASES * PREVENTING DISEASE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -U1U1U1] U19U11 1111U1 19U1]1 U1U11 U]y11 1]191 1U1U1 1y1U11 1U10111U 1U1U1 U919T1]18U1 1111U1y] -111Y T1U1U U11U1 Uy111 1-111U111 1-0U111U 1111-11UY1U11U1111 1U1U11 U11U1U1y1U 111U11 11111YUU111111111Y]1 ,U1U1 U11UUU1111111U1U1UU1U1U -111-- 1U11U1-11U111111Y 11-1-- 1U1UUU x1P1y1y 111U11U111U1-11Y -10111 U1U11 111-- 1yUU1 1U1U1U1U1U 111111U11---1 UUy1y1UU 11U1U111 U1T11U,1,-011-1111-1U -1111 ---111U11 U--10 11U111 -111111U 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U-1-01T11U0 0-1-- P11-0-T U-1,U 1UUU1U11yUTU111 -0-1-1T T-U11-0- 0-,1, UYUU0UU ,-1-0-1P1-0U U0-1-0-, 1U10y1T11U] U-0-U U0-1PU- P1-1-1-- --,1U1yUU0U1Uy1T11 Q1-0-,0 ,-,U-, -0-0-0-0Q 1UUTU1y01U] P1-0-1 0U11U1U1U0 y1yU1TUT11U ---0--1--- 1x1UU1U] -,--1 UU1U1 1U1y] UU110 1-,1- y1101T 1--0-- ]UU1U1U]U -1-0-1-1-0- 1-0-1 1T-0U1 T1-0-- -1-1- 1U1U1 1-1-0-1 y1x11T -1U]y 10UUU 0-0-1-0-1- ]y1U01Y UUUUU 0-0--0- 1U1y1 P1-0- ZyUU]U U---- 1-0Zy -)1y] -11U1- L111-- p174-2 ftsTitleOverride Parasitism and Symbiosis (page 2) ftsTitle Many species of lamprey, such as this, are parasitic on other fishes, attaching themselves to the host species by means of their sucker-like mouths. Their saliva contains an anticoagulant, to prevent the host's blood from clotting. They feed on the victim's blood and body tissue until it is virtually 'sucked dry' - by which time it is often too weak to survive. Parasitism and Symbiosis (2 of 5) Types of parasite All types of organism can lead parasitic ways of life. Microparasites - microscopic organisms such as parasitic viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists - typically multiply directly on a host. Macroparasites - larger organisms such as worms, insects, ticks, vertebrates and plants - usually produce offspring on a host that then leave it to establish new infections. Parasites show adaptations for locating their preferred host species and for establishing themselves on or in them. Usually included among these adaptations are methods for feeding from host tissues and for maintaining transmission from host to host. The latter traits become tied together into often complex life cycles, sometimes - in the case of multi-host life cycles - involving several hosts of different species. In a typical multi-host cycle, a parasite infects different hosts at different stages of its development, making specific adaptations as it passes from one host to another. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * RUMINATION * THE BIOSPHERE * THE IMMUNE SYSTEM * INFECTIOUS DISEASES * PREVENTING DISEASE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 11-1U1] 11-11-11] 511-1 1-1-U9 19U91 -11U9 11-119 1-1U19 1-11- U11U1 U]UU8U] U1]19 1T10U1U Uy01T110 U11U19 y0U0U11T 101U] 11UU1 TU0U011T11 T1U0U1 U-11] ]TUT1U110 U1T1U0110U 1T10U 011U0U]] 1T10110U1 T1T11U0U] U11]1U91]] 90U1T110U1 11U1191 U]UUT1U1T1 0U0110U1TU U]]Y1U 8y011U011U ]U]1x U0U1T11U01 1T1T1UU 1011T1 1T10U1U 11011U0]T 1TU11U0U1 0U10U1y0 9UT]U]0 U10U0U\ U1]UT1U 9y9U10 U0U110U01U ]y]U01 U01U1U]y U]11U 1U1U01U010 11U1Y] U101]11U01 10U1U 0U011U1 ]1U1U9 0]01]1]11 0U0U1 8U0U1x1011 11U110 U1U1U0]y9y 9y011T1T1 U0U]U ]15U1]1U10 1T11T10U01 y9y9x 9U0U01,1-1 T1UT1U] 09]1U11U U]\y\y]T11 01-1-1T1 10U10U] ]U19U9 y9U10 y9y0U 011U-0 U0U00U10 ]]11U] 1T1U110 9Y1Y9Y91T1 U1T101-1- U0-1U1-0U] ]]1U0 1T11TU 0UT10 1T1-0- Q10y] 0U1U01Y 1U101 T]U\U]1 1-01U0-1 -0U0U1U0 ]U9U1U 1U11T11U9 ]U91U9y90U 1U11U01-0- U10U1Y] 110U11T1U] 0]1y9]U0 11x9y 1T1U10U0 11T110 11YU99U1U 0U9y]U]U]U T1U19 ]UU9U U]1T1101U0 -01T1U] U0Uy9U1Y]] U011Y1YU 11T11T 8y91U]\UT1 1T]U]y1 01U1]]1U] UY1]UY1U1 U14U1U9y]0 9Y1TU1]U\ U10]UY]] 0y919y9y11 01U1U-1- 01U01U0U ]UY1]1\1U1 U0-1T ]]Y9U 1U]1x9U]T] U0U10 9x1U1T1U] -10-1T U01Y] 9y9]0 U19x9y9x] ]UY01T 0U1]0 1]T11T 10U1-0 1-01Y10 1T110U] T1]0y18y T10U] 1T11T-10U Y]U1U1 U0]UU9T10U ]U110 T110U9 T119y1U]T1 1-01T] U1U1-1 -01T11 9Y1T1U9 x1U1T ay01U bU1Y9 1-1U01x U0U10U 1U101U] 1UU1-0 0110U010U0 1T1U0 ]U1]1 9y9U0U19T1 P10y] T-01P 1U91U10 U11T1T YUU91] 9U1U0 118U1T11T -1U0y\ -0-1x \yT11U0 1T11U] 10U1U1U T11T-1-0- -1T1\ 11TUU01 ]U01U] U109T11T 0U010U 1Q0y] 1U10]] 1U11U 1]1U18U1 U1011- -1-0-0 91U11U 9U1T1U11 ,-,0Q 1-0U10U ]U1U]T19 1U1U11T 0U1T10]119 T1101U U\U]T -1-0U10 1U9U1 191U11U0 1--01 1U91T 11U90U9T11 0U0U01- U91T11U0U1 -0-1- U1U1U1Ta eZ]11U11 U1Y11]110U -0-01U0 U0U11-1T1- 1]1U9T1 9UTU0U10 U-,U101 901-0U 1T1]11U U1U19 ]]Yy11 U11YT9U11x 1U11U T1x1U 0U10U 11U11U 91]11 1]01U0U 0T-0- U,U01- 1-011]b 9y9U1 1]0U1U11 1-01T1T1 -1-1-1-9 1]1Y9011U -1-0-- 1-0-1 0U1U10 ]1U1]0]1 T110U 11YT1U 0U1T- 9]]19U1U0U 1U1911U011 1-1U9] 91U1U01U1 T110U101T 9U11U0 U0U1U10U0U ]U11- 1-01-1011U ]91]01U0U 10911U150U 11U01T11U- T-0y8 U1U11 11U19U91 9U8U1U0 5T1\1 1\101U11 T11U11U11U 9]1U0U] ]U]1y0U]U0 1T11U0U T1U10-11U0 11U91]19 ]U11T U01U01 0110U11U1] ]]9U1T1 T101U U0-0-1 1U01U11U-1 ]T11T1T1U 9]1U1 T101T11U 0U0-10 -0101T1U1] 1010U U11]] 1U01-0U 9U0U1 T11U0 U11T11U1 11T101T10 1T1-01U 1--0-1 1U1U1T11T T10U11 U101U1U11 10U-010- U11U1U11U1 U1xUU ]T1]0 1U10- eU1U11U11 011U19U9 U11T1U-0- ]T1-01 T11-0U1- U119U5 -U11T 1U1U011 ]]1T1T 11T1-, ]119U 1TU01U 0U10U1T1 U0U10 1U0U1 1U10U ]U01U10 -1-110 119-U 01UT1- U1U101 1U1-11 9]0U11 aU19Y] Y1T1U01 U9U]9 1U110U ]9U19 1U1U01 ]U110U ]]1U9 119U1 1U1T1-0 0110U- 9U11]] 9U1T1T 1U1U9 ]U1]] 1011T 9U01- T11]U 9119U19y1 U1T19 10U1] 11T1-T ]]T1U01 9U11T1]Y9 -]]19U11 ]U0U-1 ]]U10U1 T1U9U010 U911T1U1U1 011U1T1Q 19]1T1101 -11U1 101U1T11T1 1]10U1T U11U1T U11U01 1U9U10 T11T11U 0U-1T110U1 1T11T1 011T1U0 U11T1 1-1T1T1] 1T11T 09U0U-0-0U -1T11T T1U1U U011U, T--10-1T1U T1T11 U0T1101T 1-10U1-1 U0-1- -0-01U T1U01 ,U0-0 -1U0U -1-0- 1-1T1U0 1T-0- -0U1T 0-0U- T1-1U0 1-010 U0U0U10 1-10- 1-011U 1-0-11T11 U0-10U1T1- U10U0U1 UT-0U1 T11T101T1 0U1T1U1T1 0U0-1U T101T11U1 T10U0 1-U01T 1T1U0U U0U0U10U1 0U1-1T1 U0U1U01 T10U0-1 T11010U101 0U10U 18U10U101 1T-0U01U y10U0U 1U01T10U01 U0-0U 1T1T11T -1P1T1 10U0U 101T1 U1-1T1T T11U] 0-1T9] \1T11T1U0U 1T110U101T 1T1U0U0U0U \U0U101T 110U10U -0U011 T1T1U0U10U -10U1T1U10 1T10U1 1T101T1U01 101T1U0 U1T101U 0U011 0U1T11 U0U10 10110191U9 11U1U1U 1U9U0U10U0 1T110 110-1-0U 1U1]1U 1T190U 011T1U 1U1T11 1U0U01T 1U01T U01T1U0 T10-1-0 01-0U01 11U1T1 10U01U, 0U0-1T 0-1--, p174-3 ftsTitleOverride Parasitism and Symbiosis (page 3) ftsTitle A salmonella bacterium, magnified in a false-color image. All members of the genus Salmonella are intestinal microparasites, found in man and other animals. A wide range of diseases are caused by salmonella bacteria, including typhoid, paratyphoid and food poisoning. Parasitism and Symbiosis (3 of 5) Human parasites We think of ourselves, as a species, as being in control of our own ecological destiny, but we can in fact be infected by diseases caused by almost every kind of parasitic organism. Among the microparasites, we can suffer viral infections ranging from the mild common cold to the fatal and incurable AIDS virus. We are prone to hundreds of different bacterial illnesses, from acne to bubonic plague. We also get skin diseases caused by fungi - athlete's foot, for example, and ringworm - as well as some very serious protist diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness. Malaria and sleeping sickness are examples of parasites with multi-host life cycles. In each disease the infection is spread to new humans when an already infected mosquito (in the case of malaria) or tsetse fly (in the case of sleeping sickness) bites a person in order to feed on their blood. These insect hosts are called secondary hosts. Similarly, the insects themselves become infected when they remove blood from a person already suffering from the disease. Human macroparasites cause several of the most serious tropical parasitic diseases. One such disease, filariasis, is caused by nematode roundworms, which are spread from person to person by mosquitoes. The presence of these worms causes inflammation and eventual blockage of the lymph vessels, which can result (in severe cases) in the dreadful disfigurement known as elephantiasis. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * RUMINATION * THE BIOSPHERE * THE IMMUNE SYSTEM * INFECTIOUS DISEASES * PREVENTING DISEASE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture zuMuMz %uMvz -uQzu) -1QqQuu QMuQrU *,1v2 QQpVz -N-)1,)I2QQz-yVR *R*R11)U.z2.M Q-Vv-% -.1)-.) -y-yVu( y-zVu Rq0yVQU Qq-M-$ Q.-zv0 2yR-MR ,y,)- $2-u1 $11--9 M-,--z QuzzQ -qQlu QquqVP q--Q)u UvzRz -Uv.v MQUuL QvrQu .zzvRyv-zVvz u-q$9 RVz-Q tQMQu Mvuv)yzzUz yz-zzz RqQuMv NQVvNz VQ)zv y,p0QQ2zVz yQquIU P-Q$U ,)U$-$ {Qv-y -1vUzm VuUu$- ItIPM %u))$ mmQtMuUI UuTQt VyQr$ ,)yQzQqt Qy-QU z-V-, q-$P:% qQMuP QPy-q$ ,M-,M u-uUuH ,I-q, utQUP u$]Q)PM $Q$TQ(-QQH ,MQRLQ x-PMu QQpu$ %-,Q( QzuqR$ Qz%PTu-LpUH u(P-t zVzUm ),uM$ PqyQ$Uu -HVu$- %P1uHU $--P1 $-,)uU q1z-Uu qRqIu$ ,qu-p IQt)uM y.t)u Uy-uTv) uMu(Q tq-q%x PuuI$ PqYQqQ U,LUuV uQqy,IQ zRzzQ qutNHu% Rpy,q-L-( VVvyz lu(-y, $PQy-uMtMt 2RQqzV qQQPM ,MQ-xmPt RzyRu% VzHu$ QVyRR lxQ-Q QPu,$ $H-yU )U-zzz Qt-L- -tIu(I Q(zQuL.uUv- QVzy^ P)xVuq vQ$-1$ ,u,VQt $UtPu)yv$tq -.)uVu PM-QP UutMuU,q,u y-z($ %P)P$,) Qq,Q$QM $1M2zz $-1-- $L%yQ-y $y,qPQ)Q VvzRyyI -vVRP Q)tPM -2yVV, zVQQp R%T1)Q zru*zRt QQuLt PLQPpQu QVQVv.M Qu1-q- m-)PQu q-)Hz -Q--- ,)PHQy QRM-QM-1 -UPLyQQM vNz-qt$ $1u%P V-uM-q Qx-H)- Mlyu-qPuH- uQL-l -$Vx$u l-q1t)z%t U-y,(-u1$ H$IUu -)-zQ z$t),l ,yQ)t 1VQ1% -xVPQ vqQyu x-u(P$Uu PMU-$y,-u .zVzm ,MQpQP)u ,q--t --LRq -LRu, QyQTMI MQVQy $-MQq PuM%U tQqPylu uLt,M y-zVy uQM,u uPMPq- $$Qz-NQ P*t.v -Q2uUz )tuTHQ (t)-1 tQy-( -HUpHyQ )Q,qP Uu)uM UQ)u, v,QLl-p,t -(Q,MP .$Tu- -y%xy -u)PyPM PMtt)Q( u$Q-Vuy M----z qzQ-.V uQu)uMz -$yQP -P(l-L $y-qQ$ -(RPy V.vzR ,M,,H P(-$Q u%t)- -$1QM 1z1u1$ t1ylP H-,qQp- Ip-1- QyuUt$ -Q(---t PMP1N zuQzQVQV PQ-y-qVz y-RUvt1RzLz R-Q,1 $1)y-tqQU qu,M1Q -p,zP NuVv) Ut$Ut$ uPuzVI,y Z%u(yQP U-Q-( VQ-)U Mx.pP t%,u( u)Q-l yVuQ- Q)u1,U QzuUR) Vzu1R) PQ)QqR -PyuUuyRtQ VvUv) ,yP,y uyqVQ, RpUxRt)R y.MVu,y zVuL_ z)QVuU P)QlQ _yVyu UuzUz -H-(v .t)t(u $$tUP$tl %z,-u -qVvruVy1 t$0Q,p-t ),QMVuV yQPUp --QQM- -zQzRM Q$yPq qy%uUy -u*tQy --M-N QzV-- q,zUQ b=9]1 0U$Uy -)1,y Q----P t--uQ $Q,Lu1 -V$-I1 *-y-z$ -PVuz-QQNQt-u% -zQM_ zQy.2M-qVu q-z-qQ PM-1Q)Q q$Uu, R-u(PUu uLtP$ Qzt)u-$,MQzVV b1-UPH uQxzHQ -N-UH )-uq^ u)QRV VvVp$ 2u%zv VuqRyRu uPa:^> zqUuy zz-.L vxVzuzU zvMzQqUu$ -,MRRQy u2zQv -RzQyvz 89]9] PLQuP PM-Qz :b::\ M%y.y zy-QQ NMzuV :9]999 9]9]9 -M-MQ- zVzQu2zv 1v)2Q ^:]9^9]98]9 1zvzy1uVu)z. r1QLVQ$-r ]91]8 ey1yP -1-10U1P 9]99] 999]99\ 1U11y1U1y 19]01 Q)PLQ A^9]99 RVvY$ ]999\ ]9]9]9 u2UQ--1 -)yQ* )QzuV-z IuVH$ =]a9U >>>=9a=f 99]19]9 :]9]98]1 )R1uQ -t-)RV QQy.% 9]19U IPuIy %t,H1M QLPt$ u)zz, ,N,-- -Q-V1 vQq-v)Q z2,r.u*1*R M,QTl LQ),QMH 2Vz-yR :c^:^ P)-Vy Vy2u. uQyQy QVvUy z-VzQz.q MPNQQt qRVQL$ UuMy-u z-N--$ VR)z,)U -.VRrUzz Vu$PI yTuqPM y.NQM QMQpQy RYuVv)2Mzy QLQ-- uzQRLV v2v.z -MmUu 2VzUzy QMQu- -t)v1Q _>^;9 VVVv* -HVuU zv,q2R yR($U zVzzuV-rQz Q.MPq1 vuUuy-qQ)t- 1-Rq.zv zQuzV u%TyQ- ,MtQ- u-qu-qy zzVRQy,VVy R)2Q) -1t2v Qt)Q- VQ-1r Nz.2V -HQQqP Qzm-q,y U$1($ U-,yuy (t,q-%Q-q ,uyQH u,IQQQ yMQ-q.VQ Q(-,$TQ uM-QMR1)Q MPQ)Q u(Q,u PqQyQq -Q$zuMu It)uQ PuUI, PM-uQ MQV-I-y-M.UQ uPt-q-u -qx-- Pq-,qQymx% u)u.-V uQtM$,H r.URz uyQMQQ-MQ)z-R)2- u(Uuy QUzrPM,- MuuLP-pV lQuMQ VqVQ2y-P)RN %x$-q-P %UR)- zzrTu)Q yz.yv u)t,$, -qu-pQu QLQ-LQLQR- -y-MU UQ(uu q,qPv%,q x1u)u-m- Qy1-Q zVzVz %u%Qp,QM ,QpPV Q0-LU ,P)-R U-MP)QP-MQQ)R(Q2-1 ,q-QMt tQpP.pQI.( y1)P$0-L PuMyt)P%,Q Pm-(,q,. IP)uQPQ MHU-u( R,-P%Q --1-,zQTz ,tMPUt uLu,q-L z,$$-$V $$u(Q) y-MPIP $yuQru-u %uQp-Mt-M 1,q,t $tQqtQp QQLQ(u yPQLP q%-(u t)P-x )t$QPLQy -yzQQq, p,yQu LuLyQq-Q L-LQH, H,M,q, .p,QM -yQyIy M$-(-L tqPy$-Q 1P)Q-- uQL-tMQ,q p-q-,P .y%$- z,P)u- p174-4 ftsTitleOverride Parasitism and Symbiosis (page 4) ftsTitle A clownfish locked in a symbiotic pairing with sea anemone. Immune to the anemone's stinging cells, these little fishes live among its tentacles, so gaining protection from predators. In return, the clownfishes ward off other predators, and it is even thought that they lure larger fishes into the anemone's tentacles, so providing their protector with food. Parasitism and Symbiosis (4 of 5) A typical parasitic life cycle Another serious tropical disease, schistosomiasis (formerly known as bilharzia),is the result of infection by a flatworm blood fluke of the genus Schistosoma.The life cycle of this fluke, which infects more than 250 million people in the world today, illustrates well the types of adaptation that take place in the world of parasites. The human disease is caused by pairs of worms, a male and female locked together in permanent copulation, which live in the blood vessels of either the intestine or the bladder. The female worms in these pairs produce thousands of spined eggs, some of which escape from damaged blood vessels into the feces or urine of an infected person. This is the parasite's subtle escape route for continuation of the life cycle. Each egg contains a larva called a miracidium, which is stimulated to hatch when it reaches fresh water. It then swims to infect a freshwater snail. Within this secondary host, parasite numbers are dramatically increased by a form of cloning - thousands of new larvae called cercariae, genetically identical to the single invading miracidium, are produced in the snail's tissues. The cercariae then emerge from the snail and swim in water for about 48 hours, until their finite food reserves are exhausted. If they come into contact with human skin during this period, the cercariae bore into the skin to establish a new human infection. Because of the organization of this life cycle, the disease is commonest in developing countries in the tropics, where sanitation is poor and where there is much human contact with infected fresh water - as in paddy fields and irrigation ditches. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * RUMINATION * THE BIOSPHERE * THE IMMUNE SYSTEM * INFECTIOUS DISEASES * PREVENTING DISEASE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture Q$-L-P)P -(Q,1t)u0- p1-P1,-011 1y1tQ Q(H$,Q(uqP luLuq p,-T-xQUP QyUuyUyUuU xQyyUyyUyU UyUyUyyUy1 QUQUUy1UU- ,11U11-11- 1-11)1-1-1 1-1-1- 1--11-1 -1-11- $P%P(-P(Q( -Q1P1P-U-p 1tUQUQ UyuLuPm ,HQLuPlQp u,M1t1u1P yxyUyQyUyU Qyyxy yUyUyUyyUy yUyyUy 1y1U1-L -1-1-1 $-($- L,-PQL1,y, )y,u0Q1,1P 1T11y QtLuP -pItMtl MPQT- 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The empty mollusk shell inhabited by this hermit crab carries two sea anemones, which symbiotically protect the crab in return for scraps of discarded food. The anemones may be carefully transferred when the crab moves into more spacious lodgings. The adopted shell may also carry commensal hydroids, which gain anchorage and food but apparently give nothing in return. Parasitism and Symbiosis (5 of 5) Symbiosis The mutually beneficial partnerships of symbiosis are used by a remarkably diverse range of organism pairings. Fungi and cells of algae collaborate in a delicately balanced metabolic interaction to produce a whole new life form - the lichens. These plant-like growths have a body based on fungal threads, but derive photosynthetic benefit from the algae embedded in the fungal base. In the intestines of many animals (including humans) there are populations of symbiotic microorganisms - the so-called gut flora - some of which aid digestion. Cows and termites, for instance, are only able to digest their cellulose-rich diet because their guts are populated by a mixture of symbiotic bacteria and protists. These microorganism species can only survive in the oxygen-free conditions of termite and ruminant guts. Termites even have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their gut flora. With these they can obtain organic foods containing nitrogen derived from the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere. The same metabolic trick is used by one family of flowering plants - the legumes. This very successful group of plants, with over 20 000 species, includes the peas, beans and acacias. These plants are able to grow well even in nitrate-poor soils because their roots possess nodules populated with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that initially invade the roots from the soil. The bacteria gain nutrients from the plant tissues, while the plant gets fixed nitrogen from the microorganisms - the type of two-way help typical of symbiosis. Symbiosis occurs everywhere in the natural world. Many insects and even some bats and birds (such as hummingbirds) are linked to plants by the bond of pollination symbiosis. Certain ant colonies symbiotically protect the spiny acacias in which they build their nests. Sea anemones are locked in symbiotic pairings with clownfishes and hermit crabs. There is even a suggestion that around 1500 million years ago the complex cells typical of the higher organisms evolved from simpler bacteria-like cells by a symbiotic route. If this theory is correct, we exist today because of a series of symbioses that first happened many millions of years ago. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * RUMINATION * THE BIOSPHERE * THE IMMUNE SYSTEM * INFECTIOUS DISEASES * PREVENTING DISEASE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture T1,yT UyTUUTy\xy0yUx 0UU]yx0 -1xy] )TUT,0-0UT xUyxU 1y\y1x] yUx0-,1 1T,U0 y]x]y 1U\y1 MTP,1TQ UPUT0y0y y1,U0U Ty1y01U8 U0x-T10Q0-0y 0U11xy]Q0-U \U1T1 U,,0U0y,U0-0yTy ]t)1x1x]x]y9 y-TUP( UT11x -TTQ1T]y]] 0U110 ,U,U1 P1P1-0 0P0yU y10,u(PP 1P1x1Q0-101T- ,L1x0-01TUT10y\ UP(t,Lx1xy\y Uy9x]yx P1T1-t( T11UU0yx] L,P,u 0Q0P0y yt1tPL,t tLP]xU 1xyy\ UTy910 10-,y0U-t 0U1T1]]^U ,,LUx,y0Q100UT UxUyTy-(y, 1P1TyT1y,yT 1TUyTy9 0U0U0y1U0y9y] tL,t( 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possible, species appear to avoid competition by spacing out their niche areas. This example shows how three closely related species of North American birds that feed on the same conifer tree have different feeding zones. The Biosphere (1 of 4) The biosphere is the layer around our planet in which all living organisms exist. It contains all the different ecosystems, and all the water, minerals, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients that living things need in order to survive. The biosphere has been called the 'skin of life' - it extends only a few kilometers above and below sea level, and only a few meters into the soil. It surrounds the Earth like a cellular blanket, regulating the temperature by allowing the Sun's rays to enter and by letting waste heat back into space. Everything in the biosphere is inter related. The atmosphere helps to purify water by recycling it in the hydrological cycle, and also provides carbon dioxide for plant photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration in both plants and animals. Plants provide food for animals as well as releasing oxygen (the waste product of photosynthesis) for them to breathe. The soil provides nutrients and water for plants, and when the plants die they release the nutrients back into the soil. Both animals and plants convert food into energy by the process of respiration. The waste product of respiration is carbon dioxide, which is absorbed by plants in photosynthesis. Ecological niches All the millions of different species of plants and animals exist within the biosphere in an orderly and precise fashion. This has not happened by chance, but by the process of evolution. Each species is thought to have evolved to take advantage of a particular habitat and a particular position in the food chain, and this is called its ecological niche. By remaining in its ecological niche a species maximizes its chance of survival, for within its niche it will find all requirements necessary for life. In theory, each species will occupy a separate niche, and so competition with other species is minimized. In practice, however, different niche spaces may overlap, and where this occurs then competition for resources takes place and aggressive behavior may sometimes be seen. Communities Each part of the biosphere contains particular combinations of climate and soil. These areas provide life-support conditions for groups of species that have adapted to those environments, and so may be said to have broadly similar ecological niches. Such groups of species are called communities. There are many thousands of different communities, but they can all be divided into a simple classification: Aquatic Terrestrial Freshwater Forest Marine Grassland Desert These communities are looked at in more detail on the following pages. * THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE AND ATMOSPHERE * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * ECOSYSTEMS * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread W-,-,- ,-,-,- VX -U +3 4U - 3U ]9]cP !F@E@ d7FF?j 5;55;5 5;5;5; VjFF" 334X4X44:3 *N**43 X4X4X43-) "FG8M ,2W^]W4 -+,,V PVPVWP WW^WX E"F9N W]W2+,,-P ,,-P3,-32 4,--, W;43V] - - +W]V 3^X33 W23X_ T,3W, 443,` ,-:U]U 5^3W3 -V1X4 45\4- ,:]3 -XXUp %OtO{ ttztPOPOOP OIOPsP zttztPO% --3X3x --3W3-- ,3W^W ]yX^W-, b]9p; ;;:`; 8FFGF c:FF"FjF O+N+N$$+ >c>c> \8787\88\ 88\8\8778 p176-2 ftsTitleOverride The Biosphere (page 2) ftsTitle An Ecosystem Model 1. Sun provides energy for plant photosynthesis. 2. Amount of solar radiation varies with latitude and hence affects climate. Solar radiation also powers weather systems. 3. Volcanic activity, mountain ranges, etc., also can affect climate. 4. Climate interacts with geology in soil formation, and provides water for soil. Climate (in the form of ice, water, and wind erosion) also weathers rock. 5. Soil provides water and nutrients for plants, together with a physical base in which plants can root themselves. 6. Plants provide food for animals. 7. Animals alter vegetation by browsing and grazing. Humans have significantly altered vegetation patterns through modifications for agriculture. 8. Vegetation gives off water vapor, which helps to stabilize the climate of the planet. 9. Climate restricts the types of plants and animals that can survive in a particular ecosystem. Water and temperature are the two main climatic controls. 10. Dead plants and animals decompose and return nutrients to the soil. Nutrients are also returned to the soil through animal excrement. 11. Soil provides a habitat (including water and air) for many invertebrates. In addition many animals have evolved specialisms to cope with different soils, for example, the feet of camels. The Biosphere (2 of 4) Components of ecosystems An ecosystem is a self-regulating natural community of living organisms (the biotic components) interacting both with one another and with the non-living (abiotic or physical) environment that surrounds them. Ecosystems are 'models' devised by ecologists in order to simplify the complexity of the real world, but by studying ecosystems we can sometimes gain a better idea of how, for example, forests, lakes and grasslands actually function as complex groups of inter related species. In the earliest stages of the history of our planet some 4000-5000 million years ago only the physical components existed. An erratically changing climate and geology resulted in environments that were unstable. Gradually, a stability developed in which simple living organisms evolved. These biotic components were totally dependent for their existence upon the abiotic components. As the complexity of plants and animals increased then so they bound together all the physical, chemical and biological components. The links that join together the different parts of an ecosystem can be thought of as pipe-lines along which food, energy and waste products continually pass. The power source for life Energy is the driving force behind all life in the biosphere. The Sun provides 99.99% of all the radiant energy required for life on Earth; the remaining 0.01% comes from heat contained within the planet. Because the Sun's energy has existed for at least 4600 million years and will probably continue as far again into the future it is described as an infinite resource. The Sun's radiant energy arrives at the outer edge of the atmosphere as very high-energy short-wave radiation. As this radiation travels through the atmosphere about half of its energy is absorbed, scattered and reflected by water vapor. At the outer edge of the atmosphere the ozone layer plays a crucial role in trapping the biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the Sun. This layer is currently under threat from man-made chemicals. Of the energy that reaches the surface of the Earth, 95-99% is absorbed by the oceans, leaving, at most, 5% available to green plants for photosynthesis. * THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE AND ATMOSPHERE * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * ECOSYSTEMS * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture (p(p(p( p(pp(pp((p p((pp(p(p( p(p(p(px x(p0p(xppx ((p(p(p(p( pp0p( (pp(H(xxy 0010U 00101T 00T01 0T100: 10T009 T010T 0100T010T1 T010T100 01001 10T0101010 010100 00T00T T00T1 10010T 0T1001 01001 100T10 01T09 101T018 (pp(p0p(p xp(pp(p(pp xp(p(p(x( p(pp(p(p( x(p(p(pp (ppx(p p(p(p(pp( p(p(p( (pp(p(p( p(p(x( (p(p(pp(p( pp(pp (pp(p(xx (p(p(p( p(p(x p(pp(p xp(pp(p(x p(p(p(p 0pp((p M-011 )001(1 --11- @@8@8 8@@8@ @8d@@d 0(01( p176-3 ftsTitleOverride The Biosphere (page 3) ftsTitle The Biosphere (3 of 4) Primary and secondary producers Living organisms have two remarkable properties: firstly, they can replicate themselves (that is they can reproduce), and secondly, the green plants and blue-green algae can manufacture their own food supply from inorganic materials by the process of photosynthesis. The products of photosynthesis - the plants themselves - are then consumed by animals, thus forming the beginning of a food chain. As the photosynthesizing organisms and certain bacteria make their food from inorganic materials, they are called autotrophs (self-feeders), and form the group called primary producers. All other organisms (in particular, the animals) are known as heterotrophs or consumer organisms, as they consume other living organisms. The heterotrophs can be divided into several subgroups. Those animals that eat plants are the herbivores or primary consumers. In turn, they are preyed upon by carnivorous animals, the secondary consumers. Eventually, when plants and animals die, they are broken down by the decomposer organisms (mostly bacteria, molds and fungi) and their nutrients are released into the soil, whereupon the nutrients can be reused by new living organisms. This process is called nutrient recycling. Nutrient sources for life Nutrient recycling is necessary because, unlike solar energy, the nutrients held within the soil are scarce commodities existing in fixed quantities. Hence they are called finite resources. Nutrients are scarce because the biosphere only includes the topmost 2 or 3 m (6 to 10 ft) of the Earth's surface. Plant roots and soil microorganisms cannot penetrate much beyond this depth, and thus the bulk of the nutrients held within the Earth's crust are inaccessible. The bodies of plants and animals consist mainly of the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, in various chemical compounds. These are the so-called macroelements. About 97% of human bodies are made from these elements. The remainder is made up of microelements, which may include between 14 and 24 different elements, depending on the organism. The exact chemical composition of organisms varies and can depend upon the abundance of microelements, the age of the organism, the season of the year and the location in which the individual organism has lived. When a plant or animal dies, the chemical compounds locked in its body are gradually released back to the soil and the oceans via the decomposer organisms. Apart from the nitrogen compounds, most of the compounds become incorporated into vast, slow-moving biogeochemical cycles. In these cycles the compounds become locked into the formation of new rocks and thus become unavailable for reuse until the rock is weathered into new soil and the compounds are taken up once again by plants, so starting a new cycle the rock. The entire cycle of nutrient movement takes many tens of millions of years to complete. It is a sobering thought to realize that the chemical elements in our bodies may have previously formed part of some ancient organism such as a dinosaur living at least 65 million years before the present, and may already by then have been recycled several times in the history of life on Earth. * THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE AND ATMOSPHERE * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * ECOSYSTEMS * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture $$($$ L((T$ 1-1-1-1-1 -1-1-1--1- 1-1-1-1-1- 1-1-1--1-1 -1-1-1-1-1 -1-1--1-1- 1-1-1-1-1- 1-1--1-1-1 -1-1-1-1-1 -1--1-1-1- 1-1-1-1-1- -1--1 p176-4 ftsTitleOverride The Biosphere (page 4) ftsTitle The Biosphere (4 of 4) PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THE BIOSPHERE The term primary production usually means the amount of material trapped by autotrophs via the process of photosynthesis, and productivity is the amount of material stored by autotrophs per unit of time. It is useful to measure the net primary productivity (NPP) of different ecosystems in order to compare their efficiency. The NPP is the total amount of material assimilated by autotrophs, minus the material lost in respiration. Measurement of NPP is not easy, and a number of different and complex techniques have been devised. In spite of many variations, research has shown that forests, swamps and estuaries are the most productive ecosystems within our biosphere, and that a strong productivity gradient exists from the tropics (high) to the poles (low). Research also indicates that our agricultural systems are, for the most part, relatively unproductive in terms of primary production. The main factors that control primary production are the length of the growing season and the length of daylight, both of which are partly related to latitude. Because of the distribution of the land masses, some 80% of land on the Earth's surface falls within the less productive regions. * THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE AND ATMOSPHERE * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * THE CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * EVOLUTION * ECOSYSTEMS * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture )x0q1x1p0 y-yp1xy1p0 yxq0-00)00 100)0(0 )0((1 )0(() ll(Hp$pp HlH$HpH $HlHH H$$l$H $($($p $(H$$H$$H HH($HH pHH(( Hp$$(Hpl (H$H( H$H$p $$HH$H$$ ($$xp$H$ $H$HH HH$$H$$H HHp$H p$HH$HH HH($(H H$$H$H ($((p($ H($$HH $H$(H ($$($ $HH$H$HH (H$HH$$(H$ $$HH$H $H$H($$ $HH$H ((H$$H($ $H$$HpH$ $($H$H($ H$$H$H $$HH$H$ HH$H$$H $l$HH$H $H$HHp H$$H$$ $H($$H HH(H$ p$$H$ HHlpHH HH$HH lp$l($ $$l$$ ($$(H C CCBCC CCBgC CBCBCgBCC @@D@D 88@\@x8 \@88@8d8@0 @8@\@8@8 @88\@8@8d d@8@d@8@8 @@8@8 @8@8\8@8d@ @\@8@88@\8 @8@8@8@ 8@d8@@88\@ 8@@8@8@8@@ \88@88@8@ 8@88@8 @@8d8@8d8 8@@T@8@8@8 @@8@8@\@8 8@8d8@8d8 88@8d8 @\8@88@ 8@8@8@88 @8@@\@8\@8 @8@8d8@\8@ @8@8@\@8@8 8d8@8d8@8@ 8@8@@8 8d8@8 @@d8@8@8@8 @8d8@8@8@8 @8d@0@8@88 \@8@8@88@@ 8\@8@8 @@88d8 @8@\8@8 @\88@8@8@8 8d@88@88@8 8@8d8@8@88 @\@8@8 @8@8@88d 8@8d88d8@8 @88\@8d8@8 d8@8@\8@\@ 8@8@\@@8@8 @8d8@@8@ 8d8@88@8@8 @8@8@8@8\@ @8@8@88@\@ 88\8@8@8 @8d88@\@8@ @8@8d@8@8@ \@8@\@8@@8 @88@8 @8@@8@8@8@ 8@8@8@8@\ @@8@8\@ d8@8@8d8@8 @8d8@\8@8d 8@88@\@8@\ @8@\@8@8@8 @8@88 88@8@8d@ 8@8@@\@8@\ @@8@8d8@8d 8@8d8@8@88 @88@8@@8@ 8@88@ 88d0@8@8@8 8@\@8@8@88 @8@8@8d88@ d8d@8@@8@@ @8@8@ 8@@\@ 8@@8d@ 0)0(0 BABCB BC CC CB BCBC BB B BCB B A8@A@ 8@8d@8 @@8@@\@@ 8@@8@8d8@ 8@8@8d 8@\@8@\@ 8\@8@@8\8@ 8@8@8@@8d8 @8@@8@ \@8@@8 @@d@@\ @@d@8@ d@@88@@\ 8@d8@@8@8 @8@8@ d8@8@8@@8@ d@8@@ 8@8@@d@88@ 8@\@8 @8d8@8 @8@@8d@ @8@@\@8@8 8@\@@8 8@@8@8d@ 8@8d8@8d8@ @8@@8 8@8d8@ @8@8@8@\@8 8@d8@8@8d @8@8@ d8@8@88@88 d@@8@@\@@8 @@8@@8@@8@ @8@8d @@8@@8 @d8@8@@ d8@8d8@@ @8d8@ @8@@8d@8@8 \@8@@8@@d@ 8@8@8@8@@8 @d8@8@8d@8 8@\@@88d@ 8d@@8@88@8 d8@8@ 8d8@@8@@ @d8@8@d@ @8@8@ 8@8@@ @8@8d8 @@8@8@\@@8 \@8@8@8 8@8@8 @88@8d 8@@8d@@ 8\@8@8@d8@ @@d@@d8@8 8@d8@d@@8@ 8d@@8@8 8@\@8@ @8@\@@ @8@\@8 88@d8@8 8@8d8@8@ 8@8@@8@8@\ @88d88 @8@d8 88@8@\@@8@ 8d@@8@8@8 @@d8@8@\@ @8@@8@8d8 8@\8@@8 @@8\@@8 d88@@ @d@@8 8@8d8@@8 8@8@\ @8@88 @@\@8@ 8@@\@@8@@8 @8@\8@8\@ @@8@d8@8d 8@@8@\@@8@ @@8@8@d @@8d@8 @8@8@\8@8 @8@\@8@8@ @8@8@88@ 8\@8@ @8d@@ 8d8d@8@8@8 88@@d@8 d8@@d@8@d 8@d88@d@8@ @8d@@8D@\@ @8d@8@@d @8@@8d@8 8@d8@@\@@ @8@8\@88 8@8d8@8@8 8@8@d8@ d@@88@ 88@8@@d8 @8d@88d@8 8@88@@8 8@d8@8@d@@ d88@@d D8@8@\@8 d@@\@@8@\@ 8@8@8@8 \@@\@ @8@d88d@ 8\@88@8@ @8@\@@8 @8@@88@d8 8@@8\@8@d8 @@8@8@@8 \@@8@@8@@8 88\8@8@@ 8@@8@8 @@8@@8@8@@ 8@8@8@8@8@ 8@8d@@ 8@@\@@8 d8@@8 8d@@8 \@@d8 @8@\@@8 @@8@d@8@ @8d@8@\8@@ 8d8@@8d@8@ @@8d8 @@8@d@8d@@ 8@8\8@8\@ 8@8@8@88@@ 8@8d8 88@@8@ 8d@8@8@ d@8@\@@8 @@8@\@@8 8@@d8@8@d@ 8@8d8@8@8 @8@88d8@8@ 8@8@8@@ 8@\@8d@@8\ @8@8@d8@8@ @8@@8@@8@8 @8@d8@8@8@ p178-1 v#N$0% ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Aquatic (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Mangrove in Kenya. Mangrove trees and shrubs belong to a variety of families, but all send out 'prop' roots from their trunks, among which sediment is trapped. Mangroves, which are restricted to the tropics and sub-tropics, grow in dense thickets in salt marshes and along tidal estuaries and muddy coasts, as here. Mangroves form unique ecosystems, and support a variety of aquatic animals. Ecosystems: Aquatic (1 of 3) Water covers 71% of the surface of the Earth. This fact, combined with the great depth of many of the oceans (average depth 3700 m / 12 140 ft), provides a living space estimated to be 200 times larger than all the land ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into marine systems (salt water) and freshwater systems (rivers and lakes). Aquatic ecosystems are better able to support life than the terrestrial ecosystems. However, because of the constancy of the water environment when compared to the land environment, the diversity of life in the vast aquatic ecosystems is relatively small. The aquatic environment A watery environment was almost certainly the original source of all life on this planet. Water provides a protective shield around plants and animals, preventing the drying out of cells, providing buoyancy, transporting food to the organism, and carrying waste products away. Water also makes fertilization much easier than on land, preventing the developing young from becoming dry, maintaining an even temperature, filtering out harmful ultraviolet light from the Sun, and dispersing the young after birth. One of the most remarkable properties of water is its dissolving power. Chemical compounds can be dissolved, transported, and precipitated out with virtually no chemical alteration due to the neutrality of rainwater (pH about 6.5, i.e. just slightly acid). In some places, however, acid rain has increased the acidity of water, with harmful consequences for the organisms living in it. Plants and animals that live in water can dispense with a rigid structure (woody tissue in plants, bones in animals). One major group of fish has developed a supple cartilaginous framework that provides attachment for the muscle system. The contrast in the supportive capability of air and water is shown below. Medium Density Value (grams per cc at 4 deg C and at mean sea level) Air 0.0013 Sea water 1.028 Fresh water 1.001 Protoplasm 1.028 Notice that the density of protoplasm (the jelly-like substance within all living cells) is identical to that of sea water. That is why we float in sea water more easily than in fresh water. Some biologists believe that as the density of protoplasm is identical to that of sea water it is possible that all animals had an earlier ancestral form that lived in the oceans. Controlling factors Various factors control the nature of different aquatic ecosystems. The most important is salinity (the saltiness of water), which depends principally upon the amount of sodium chloride dissolved in it, along with small amounts of bromides, carbonates and sulfates of the elements sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Salinity is lowest - typically 30 parts per thousand (ppt) - near the estuaries of large rivers where the addition of fresh water dilutes the concentration of salts. High salinity (70 ppt) is recorded where rainfall is low and evaporation rate is high - in the Red Sea, for example. The amount of salinity divides aquatic ecosystems into two main groups. The first group, the freshwater ecosystems, includes standing water such as reservoirs, lakes, ponds, marshes and wetlands, and the flowing water of rivers and streams. These ecosystems are normally of very low salinity, usually between 15 and 30 ppt. By contrast, the waters of the second group, the marine or saltwater ecosystems (which include oceans, estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral reefs), contain considerably more salts, typically between 35 and 70 ppt. The saltiness of the oceans is ultimately derived from minerals and salts eroded and washed away from rocks and soils, and eventually transported to the sea by rivers. The temperature of the water in aquatic ecosystems is also critically important for life forms. Of the ultraviolet light that reaches the surface of the planet, about 95% is absorbed as heat by the oceans. The effect of this is to make the seas behave like giant radiators that warm the northern hemisphere in winter and cool it in summer (and vice versa in the southern hemisphere). On average, the annual variation in surface-water temperature of the oceans is about 10 deg C (18 deg F), but at a depth of 20 m (66 ft) the annual variation may be as little as 1 or 2 deg C (2 to 4 deg F). Because of the evenness of temperatures, most aquatic life forms have little or no need for temperature-control mechanisms such as those found in land-based life forms. The third controlling factor is oxygen, a vital component of all aquatic ecosystems. Most oxygen is found at the surface of water bodies, especially in turbulent streams or when waves break. The amount of dissolved oxygen in water can be severely altered due to human activity. In particular, the dumping of untreated sewage and industrial wastes directly into seas and rivers has caused a huge increase in the demand for oxygen by the organisms that feed on the effluents. Organic debris, phosphates from soap powders and ammonia from agricultural sources and sewage all provide a rich food supply for bacteria and scavenger organisms. They feed rapidly on these effluents, growing and reproducing much more quickly than in unpolluted waters. The increase in numbers consumes most, or even all, of the dissolved oxygen, and this in turn asphyxiates other aquatic life forms. A fourth factor is the speed at which sunlight disappears in water. This depends upon the quantity of suspended materials and floating organisms in the water. Usually some 50% of red, orange and yellow light is absorbed in the top 2 m (6 1/2 ft) of water, and by 20 m (65 ft) only small amounts of blue-green light remain to give water its typical 'color'. The rapid removal of sunlight makes all aquatic ecosystems that are more than several meters deep into dark, relatively cold environments. Even at the equator, the temperature of deeper water does not exceed 4 deg C (39 deg F). * RIVERS AND LAKES * THE OCEANS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * ARTHROPODS: * CRUSTACEANS * FISHES * AMPHIBIANS * REPTILES * BIRDS * MARINE MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * FISHERY Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 111-0U :^:^^ ]1-10 11Y1--01 1-19U 19U1- ^^^^^: ::U1U: 11119 1-1U1U] 1-1U11- 1-1-1-1- -1^^:_^:^^^:^^Y :^:^:1-9 9-111 9-111- 111U11U- -1Y11-1U 1-1-191 :^:V: 9U0-111-] YU119 U-111-11-1 -1-1Y1-1 -111]10 111-- ^1^ : ^:^:]1 --1---1] 9y1-11 9U1191U1]1--11 1111-9 Y111] 1119Z] ^b^^11:^^: :::-: Y0-1U 1]11- -9U1119U1U b-Yb^^: :^::Y^9^ U::^: U::Y19 ]U1U- -1]1U1 -11111U U111U11]11Y1-1 ^cY: ]::^^_ 111^:1- 1U]11 111-1-111U11 -11U1]11 UY1-1 91111 ^ : : 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99U91 99U90U :]: :U: U9]9U p178-2 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Aquatic (page 2) ftsTitle Ecosystems: Aquatic (2 of 3) Marine ecosystems Marine ecosystems provide ecological niches for about 250 000 different plant and animal species. Many of these are very simple, single-celled phytoplankton (plant-like) or zooplankton (animals), which provide the food sources for other larger species, notably fish. Ocean ecosystems can be divided into two main types: the coastal or neritic zone, and the ocean deeps. Coastal ecosystems extend from low water to the edge of the continental shelf and they do not exceed 200 m (660 ft) in depth. This zone represents less than 10% of the ocean area yet contains 98% of marine life forms. It is the location of most commercial fishing, and increasingly for off-shore oil platforms. Unfortunately, it is also the most heavily polluted part of our oceans. The ocean deeps usually occur far away from land masses, and so are mostly relatively unpolluted. Three distinct zones can be found: a surface or euphotic zone to 200 m (660 ft), which contains most life forms, a middle bathyal zone (200-2000 m / 660-6600 ft), and a cold, dark, bottom layer or abyssal zone (below 2000 m / 6600 ft). Surprisingly, about 98% of the species in the ocean deeps are in the deepest zone, but most are bacteria involved in decomposition. * RIVERS AND LAKES * THE OCEANS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * ARTHROPODS: * CRUSTACEANS * FISHES * AMPHIBIANS * REPTILES * BIRDS * MARINE MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * FISHERY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture pqxpL $($xp l($H$ p(H$$ x($$0 0ppH$ ppLl$ x\xpyp (lxqz ylpply 0(pqx pypyy Tyxpqx q0lLqp pLpllH \mppq : C11 CBCyG C-11: BCgBC Hl($l Fg j F C CBC CBCCB BCCBCCB BC CB BC CCB CBC C CCBCBC GCCBC CBCCBCC p178-3 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Aquatic (page 3) ftsTitle Ecosystems: Aquatic (3 of 3) Freshwater ecosystems Freshwater ecosystems are highly variable and their characteristics depend upon the surrounding geology, land use, and pollution levels. Most freshwater ecosystems are eutrophic, i.e. there is an accumulation of nutrients and organic matter. This accumulation takes place over time and can be thought of as an 'aging' process, particularly in lakes. Unfortunately, extreme eutrophication can also occur when raw sewage or agricultural wastes are allowed to enter fresh water, with a resulting depletion in oxygen. In contrast, fresh water that flows off ancient acid rocks or that drains from peaty areas often has a very low nutrient content. Such freshwater ecosystems are described as oligotrophic. They have clear water (apart from brown staining from peat) and usually have very few life forms. * RIVERS AND LAKES * THE OCEANS * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * PRIMITIVE ANIMALS * ARTHROPODS: * CRUSTACEANS * FISHES * AMPHIBIANS * REPTILES * BIRDS * MARINE MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * FISHERY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture :229(qxy yyZyZ zyZyy1 yyUyyZ 1ypyyxx CC11Z0 BCC:: L(y(y pLxpLp -(y(y ;f;BC B_B;CBC:CC B;B_C 9Cg;B ;C:gC:: C:CC C;BCCBg: g;CC;gBC;C ;B;C; :C;C^C; BC_BC;CBCg CB1p- Bg;B;CB CC:CC_CBC; ;B;gBC ;B_C:;^C BC_:; BC:CB;CBgB CC:CB f;CB;BgCGC CfCC: ;C:_B CB_B;BC;BC f;;CBgC C;B;CB;C:_ BCCBC_B;B; yx(2:; B;CB;B p-$$-y BC:CCBCC;f CB;CBCCB;B ;gC;CgBC;C gB;g;BC;B; 1x:CBC:CBg ;CB_C:CCB ;C:C;CC; f;C:CCBCC_ CBCC:gCBCC ;:CB;CB;CB CB;C:C;:Cf ;CCBCCgC:C :C:(y C;BC; ;l(1CfBCB C:CCB: y1)x) GCBg;;B;g; B;CC_BC;CB _;CC:Cf;BC gB;B;C;B_C ;;BCB;C B;gB;:CBC: B;Bg; B;CB_;B ;Bg;B;C_CB CgCBCC;C:C BCgB;CB;CB CC;BC:x C:C^C BC;B; p:C;C ;g:CC;g;- BgC:CB_C:C B;;gB;CBg: C;CB;C: B;C_B CBC;CC:CC C;BgCBCB_C C:gCB; ;fCB;CB; g:CC:gBC C;B;BC;CC: C;CgBC^C ;CC::;(( 1CgBC:Cg:C yyZyy yyZyy ;CBg: B;g:C;; CB;CC:C;C^ C;C:Cg CBg:C; CB;CC:g;B :CC;Bg;CBC BC;B;C_ CC;_B ;;CCB;gC:C CC:C;C ;BC;fCB;gB ;gB;B;Cg: CCB;C :C:C; BCC:CgBC: B_C;CB BCBC;B ;B;C:Cg:CB ;C:CC:CB CB;Cg ;B;BC;C: BC;BC_C:C; fC:CC:CCg: BC_B;C: CC:gC:CB_C C;BC;g B;C:Cg;BC: CC:CgB ;BCBC;B CC:CC_BCBC ;gCB;B;CBg :C;C:CC_C: fCC;BCC;CB C_BC;g;B;B Cg;B;B BCCB;B;CC: C;B_B;C: C:gC:C;g;B ;CBCC :CC:CCg:C; ;C;B_C;B ;Bg;B CBCB; C:CgBCC_C: C;:CgCCB BCBgC BC:Cg;B;Cf BgB;CBC_BC BgC;BCBCCg CB;CC^C; Bg;C; CB;gC BCBCg:CCBC p-BCC: C;g:C;B;C_ ;BC;B_ C:C;Bg:C:_ :;;C: C;^C;B; C;BC;B;f; C:CC:Cg:C; ;CB;C_B;Bg CB;C:C;CCf ;CC:C;C;BC C:C;B;C C;B;B;BC;B C:C;f ;B;CCB;g;B ;C^CB C;B_C: C;f;C:C: BC;CC; ;BC;BC ;C:C: BC;BC;gC CC;B;g CC;BCgBC: CC;CB; gBCgBCB;CB ;CgBCB_C:C fCC:gCB;BC C:C;gCB fCB;CB;gBC C:_B;CB_B :C_B;CC CC;:; :;g:C;B;B C;BC:CfC;B ;CB;C;BCgC C:C_BCBCC B;C:C;;C:g C:C;fC;:g; ;:gC:CgCCB CC;B_:g;B B;B;C;B CC_BC;BC;; CBCC;C: C;CC:CB :CC_BC1 ;BC;C xp0CB ;C:C;B; ;C;CBCCgB CCg:C ;CBCf;CfCB BCC_B;CCBC CBgBCBCgBC C;BCCBCCB; C;:C:;C BCCB;Cg B_BC;BC;fC CBCBCCgCC ;CBC:gC:C :C_;B C;f;C;f C:C;C gC:;fCBC:C B;C_BC: ;C:C; fC:g;B;C;g ;CBCC^CC; ;C;BC B;Bg;C^ ^;CBC;C:_C ;BC:;CBCC CCBC;B ;f;CC G;;B; f;_CC:_CC; BC_CC^C; B;CBCC; BC;CB;C:C; ;CBC- C:;C_ CC:C;C ;CB;gC:CBC B;C:CC^ g:C;CC CBC;f;C CC:;BC; ^C;CgBC;;B CC:1(2 CCBCg;B ;gBC-p)z CCgB;CC;BC :CCB_ CB;C: C:;B;; B;B;C :CB;C C^CBC;BCC^ C:CC:CCB;C CgBCCB; g:;C:; ;Bg;C:C:C CfCB;_B;C ;CB;C:Cg;C :CB;C C;B;B CCBC_ BC:C;BC; ;BC;gBC;BC _;BCB;gB;C B;;CC :C:C;C C:C;C^ C;C:;CCBC; ;B;gB C:g;B;C Hlppl _C;C:CC:CC CCB;B ;;B;C: 2CC;B CCB;CCfCC BC_CCBC;g B;C;B; CBC;B CC:CC:C C^CC;Bg;B CCBg:CBC:( ;;C:C CB;C:CC BC;fC C;BC;CB; CC;BC ;CBC_B BCC:C; B;C:; B;BCg:;BC; ;CB;CC B;;B;C ;CC:g;C:;C ;BCBC :CC;CBCC:g C;BC: BCf;C ;;B;CC: ;:C11 C;B;f :CCB; :C;;C;C C;BC: ;C_BC ;C:C;Bg C;B;B g:CC; CC:;CC :C;CB :C;C:C ;C;:; CBC_B C^C:CCB ;CBCf; ;CC:C:C; ;B;C; ;C;CB ;BCCg B;C^C:C ;:C_C: fCCBC ;C;B; ;C;BC C^CB; B;B;C CB;;C: CC:CC:C B;g:C; C;:g; C:C:C ;C;B;C BCB;C: :C;B; ;CCBC;gB ;CC:C CC:C; ;B;gC :B;BC g:C;B ;g:C;C B;g:C ll$;B;;BC C;gCCB;C ;C;gB; ;CB;C:C: :C:C;B BC_B;f CC$$2 ;f;CBC;B C;BC;g;(q C:C;B C;:CCf; ;B;:lp ll-CC^CC: C;C:CC :CC;C C;CB; C;B;BC CCg;B :CC;B lHlHl CC;B;CB ;f;C:;B CB_CB BC;BC;B C:;C;B ;;B;BCC ;CC;B;: (-Cg;B ;C:C;CB; C:C;CB;C 1-(gC :C:C; C:C;B ;BC:C B;CC^;C:C; ;B;C:Cf CBCC;C: CBg;BCC;CB C;Cf;C:C; C:C;C;C^ B;BC; C;CBy B;B;; ;;B;B pHlHH B;C;C :CCB;C C;BC;BC C:CC: C:C_:CC C;B;B; :C:C^CC ;BC;B; B;BC: ;B1-Ux 2:;:B C F C ;CBCC: C^ C G; FC ;C BCg B C B C CBCC B HllHl C:CB g;:CC Hll$)B C G:C C : CBC;C ll(:C llH1CB CC;B; BC;B BC B CBC;B;C BCC : CBC;B CBGCBCBC BCBCBC BCBCB CBCBC:CB CCBCBC:CCf CBC;B ;CBC: BC:CC CgB;C:C CB C C ;::C:^ BgC F; BCBCB :BCC: ;C:C; C FCC C G B Hpq$H pxppx x$$ll $p$H$( p$HHl :C;f;CB; BC; CC BCBCC CCBCB C:CC:C :1CB: gBCB; 1: :: C CC (HH(( :BCBC CBgBCB CCBCBCBCgC BCCBCB CBCCBCBC BCBGB B;CBC B#BC0H(p$$ (H$qp $p)$$Hp($ $H$Hp ($($$ ($$(qp$ p(H$H$- (%$H$H$( 0)$pH$ $Hlqp $p)(- $$llH H$H(H$ $($$y yp(L$$p( $($$pp @@D@0 @@8-8@ @Dd( 8@@D@ @dDdD@ @D@d@ dD@@d@@h@ @@ @ @@d@@D D@@ @D d@D@@D DDd@D D@@d@D p180-1 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Temperate rain forest in Tasmania. Temperate rain forests are found in particularly wet areas in the mid-latitudes, including Tasmania, southern Chile, and the northwest coast of North America. Such forests may be predominantly coniferous or broad-leaved, but all are characterized by an abundance of ferns and mosses. Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (1 of 3) The extensive northern latitudes between 35 deg and 70 deg are the locations of the main extra-tropical forests. Many different extra-tropical forest types existed in the past. Some have been totally cleared, while others have been simplified by selective felling. Two contrasting tree types are found in these forests. North of latitude 55 deg N, the softwood conifer tree predominates, while to the south, the broadleaf hardwood tree is dominant. In the southern hemisphere, apart from New Zealand, parts of eastern Australia and in Tasmania, the temperate broadleaf forest is present only in small amounts, while the conifer (or Boreal) forest is virtually absent. Although broadleaf hardwoods and some conifers can be found in both hemispheres, the species composition is usually totally different. This suggests that at some time in the past a common ancestor for conifers and another for broadleaf hardwoods existed, probably within the equatorial forest. Migration of tree species, combined with significant movement of the Earth's plates, carried species north and south and in the process distinct lines of evolution took place, thus separating the species of the two hemispheres. The evolution of the mid- latitude forests The ancestors of present-day forest species were already in existence during the Tertiary period, some 20 million years ago. About 1 million years ago there was a major cooling of the atmosphere, resulting in the ice ages. The mid-latitudes of both hemispheres were largely covered by snow and ice, destroying many forested areas. From about 20 000 years ago, the climate gradually improved and the plants and animals that had migrated towards the equator to avoid the ice ages reinvaded the mid-latitudes. Animals could fly or walk to the ice-free land, but plants relied on the wind, rivers or animals to transport the seeds. Small, light seeds - such as those of birch and pine trees - were carried faster and farther than the heavy seeds, such as those of oak and beech. Such a reinvasion (as far as plants are concerned) is an example of a vegetation succession. In a vegetation succession many different plant types take part, but these eventually come to be dominated by 'closed' forest communities - that is, forests in which all the living space is used by trees. The last ice age finally ended about 10 000 years ago, and a succession of flowering plants quickly developed and reached its peak about 3000 BC, when the average world temperature was about 2 deg C (3.6 deg F) warmer than at present. This high point is called the climatic optimum and was characterized by the most luxuriant development of forest that the planet had seen for about 20 million years. During this time only the highest mountains and exposed coastal lands of the mid-latitudes remained unforested. After 3000 BC two events occurred which changed the distribution of world forests. First, the climate became slightly cooler and moister. Peat began to form in the wetter areas and prevented the regrowth of trees. More significantly, humans began to emerge as an increasingly successful animal. At first, human impact on the forests was slight: people gathered berries and nuts, cut timber for shelters, and made clearings in which to keep the first domesticated animals. By the end of the 19th century many mid-latitude forests had been felled to make way for agriculture, towns and industry. On average, only 33% of the mid-latitudes remained forested, and in Britain, for example, only 2% of the country was covered by mature forest by 1918. Most mid-latitude countries now recognize forests as a vital resource, of great economic and scientific wealth. As such, the remaining areas of forest (on average, about 20% of the land area) are carefully managed, either as commercial forests, or in the form of protected areas such as national parks. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * MIGRATION * THE BIOSPHERE * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -x9P1y ]P1u0 y-1x- P)y\uiTT U\y00 Q,U,(,L,P 8-TT1 1,91X 1M1-- u1--1 QUuy,M -1Q1, -0-(- x1-0- -Q0-Q M-U-0- QyUzT -z.z1- 1U110 U,M-P P,xUUT y1212U2y1 U1y:U T10UT\ 50QTy 1U11^0 x1T,0 U011T, U1-11U U1Ty0 1-1\-T 1T]T1 1T98t yTTU\ -0UT- \U0y0T1 ]\]T10U01T ]T,\]1 T10Q8 Te]0UT 9018U9 011U\],U9 1-8U\y T1\1]\ ]T180 TU0]1 UU0]T \y\T1 T]T9\ -TT0T Y1U1y -]1-^ 0X\\0P ,U2y] YU]U] --12z 11(12-- 1P1,1 \01T1 1xUP0 0-]U00U1 -UT1y 1T11, x-1-1U1y11 0y1]TUT -11-11YyU 1-0y1,-yy1 yU-UUYU1 18y1UU 1]099y T-T,1U1y: 1T1,U U-UU9- 1,Uy1UUY 0-1]-y 0VTT11 1QTU] U11y1 10U0U8 ]Y]1y :zby1 -11]_ 1U,U01 -2U1] U0y0^U\ ZUU1X U-V2V -1y;-T U1]11U1 y0y0,1 1U1U2 1U1:- 1 -]1 (--Y- ^1U1- :]UU9 09P899 a=T=9 019-2 99\9> -01-:y -11-V U:V^1:y 9a\]8 1-1u> 11-UV1 --,)y 0y,-101 y-1-1U ]]1-9-] ]]1y1P1 18T90 80]aT U8U9]8\ -]V8- UQTy1T T1T]a \1-8]` ]99a9]9 ]1]]11T Ub`8> a]a]=] Uf^aU -T]T] ]9]1] 1911U ^9=]9]9 1T1-1 90]0- 1\1]9P -11Ta U-8U-T UU1UT xT-y1 9T58T P1x1,] 1]8]] -1Y11 -1-91 9]1]9]1 x1-0yy1 0-1-0 QU-0y ]^99U U11Q-- 1]91] T9T-8 TUyT] U0UU191 9]b]a y]U]y Y:U-\ ]ae]1aa] 9-1U91 0U]T]U \9]81 991B\] ]9]a1U :9^bT9 1T-0U-- `]880 9]=]a 98]9a =1]01 ]]-1( 8]`]8 ,:Q91 -^9 1 1-1-1 1U9U9x1 -U0-0- 119U10 ]^]]1 ]]UbU -0y11 y1T1U 9UY--1 1189: -1-UU^ b9\1Q 1-11U 10-10 ]1-11 ]1-]T11T-0 1U-]V 1U1-0 1Q1-1 1,-0- -8]a8U ]1-19 9Ub]02 -1-01 9T9]9 U1-1--0 ]U0]8 9aea8= 9UU^T -]T:U =9]A] ]1U- -0-0- -1TUU- 11U0- 9U919 01-9- U-10Q by:U1 U]-11U U9-9U -1-9- -10-11 U:y]1U -]U11 01-1- 11-11U0- y9U1- 0-1U] 11-10] ]1]1> 1U2]-: Y8=]0 ^0V92y ]91-9 11019 0]1U1 9 0^01^0 11UA- -91:U1:] ]U-11 -b1ab] -1^>1 1U]]0 y-1T11U ]]a-Ta] ]1-1U- 91U990 1U110 \-8bT -1]11 -011- ]19]9 9]1-0 11T-- 9--9] -10^9 9 b->] -]],- U:y:U ^b9Y9 U-]T> 91189U ^=Ub]^9 U1]1U1 1U-9U: 1-8-]^ 9U]-- 19--= -9T1U9 p180-2 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (page 2) ftsTitle The Boreal forest of northern Eurasia and America is the home of the wolf. Hunting in packs, wolves can bring down prey larger than themselves, such as caribou, which they follow north to the tundra in the brief arctic summer. Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (2 of 3) Coniferous or Boreal forest A vast area of forest extends from about 45 deg to 65 deg N or even 70 deg N in Siberia. This is called the Boreal forest. A short growing season of 3 months is too restricting for the broadleaf hardwood trees. Instead, coniferous, softwood gymnosperms predominate, the most common types being spruce, pine, fir and larch. Apart from the latter species, the conifers are evergreen, a condition thought to increase their ability to use any short, favorable growing season. In the river valleys some deciduous hardwood species, such as willow and birch, occur as alternatives to the vast areas covered by conifers. On the forest floor is a thick layer of poorly decomposed acidic needles. These in turn are covered by mosses and sedges. Tree growth in the harsh conditions of these latitudes is slow, with trees taking 150-200 years to reach maturity. Although large areas of Boreal forest have been cut over and replanted, there still remain extensive areas of coniferous forest barely touched by man, particularly in the vast remoteness of Siberia. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * MIGRATION * THE BIOSPHERE * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 2V2V: 226^^2 :V:^22 V1V:Y 6Y2V: 2y21:2 ^V:V: 2V:V:2 ^26V:V 2V22V2: VTQ,U :z:U212 U22^2 2:V:V -TU1U11 2^22^2 ^^2 b zTytU (11UU 2^:V2 ^_^:V2V^ UU]yyb 2YZZ ^ U-1-0Q ]PUTU,y -TUyxQ t)1$Q 1UU,L -x11P -T-yU ,U1xx1 MTy]y ,-,1PUxy UQ2QQ Ux1U,yU uxQx-x UTy1xP$ QL,uxU z9y1U ,M,L-(Py QxPP) 0ux1u1y, )x11, )0u,qPUx UUQM1 -U1xu L-(P\ Q)yUP) Q(-1P 1T-UZ yUy1y,1P), QUQU,y U1QU1--0Q( u,yUP M%mQx$ Q0yTy, ,$,-PU -x-(-0Q) x1U1T P1-T-UT-U- y1)-- L1PUQP ,UyP, ),,L- u-1q1M Uy-Y) y0tU,1 Q,L10Q P,-L-T-11 -1P-PPy 1yUt-y UPTQ-xU 1y1-1 1y1x1 ,U-P-T, T-,P(,Q -T1-(Q(P y1x-xU 2y-T-M, UyyUUV u0u(UQ1-,) )-,-- -T1y-p Q1%1y 1UPyQxy x,M-,Q( PPUPU, yy]yuT1yTU T-PU,M0QU, -P1T-M TQP1xyTy QU-0-(Q x1U,1u,y U1y1,Q(u 0U$-(-, -Q0-),M yUPMUP -1Q1-1 1UPM,- 1,U-L P1T-P)x,)P -P)-$ -M,L, ,Q-1t $-y-T,,) -0-,M MP-x- M101)xuUPU M,1,Q ,-,--)P $-,)PUP-LU ,QTQU Q)P),M --,,P) -101x Q,M0yPy ,-)11 ,1--( yy-y1yU UU,-,PU U-L--1 TQLQ- :^b t1t1Q ,-M1y0y Uy1xyTyy ]y-01 QPPUP 1$1y$ y10P1yP-( yUTUPy1t]y xUyy]y V12UV ,1y,UT T1P1yxUTUu )P-x1 t-Tyy 10y,-- Q(-P)T ,-Q1T -LQ-U--P-U UyU]Uyx ,UQ(u,yyUy $-,Ly -L-yy P-1T- QP1yU yTyy9 2V:Y2 P-0U- $-P1yyUxQ UyyUy UU01yT-U ,ytUyx ,M-11 -0--U-- 1y]xyU V12^2V QU-1P MTQTUyU $0$Ut )u(uTPq 1VUU1 ,1t-xUUQ QqTQ,q 1V2V: 1y11, U1y,yUTUx Q0tLu($ M,y,11u0yU 1,M0-x -TQx1P1 -Q(tU UPUUP M,yTP) Uy0UP 1u0y,U-TU -1--Y- qyUty x-1L, QtxQy P1P1Q(TQ11 QMxUP -(--Y -L-(QU 1--,- ,tyTy0 -P11y 1-,Q(u1 M$1-P yy1y1U- $-L-UTU y1y1y -t1-1 yUy1, -yyUy --,U- yUT-- 11-1- -y11- -U1yQy y,Q-Q- Q11-$ $Qx-xyT 1LTu- 1011y Q]1-- PyTP, -1U11Q 1U-,1 $1P$UyU 1t)P- yUx-L$ PMP0Q 11--x 11U1V21 Q(yTUPU, u1t]Q( -]Q1, Q-1yz 1y11U M-UQ])Q- P1y11- 11y0P -1-(Q V1UU11 yUUyT t,UT$ $--T, --T$-- -Q11-U1 ),qzV U,Q(, 1y1UP -1--y, 11-2U21-Q y1y1V 0-y--z UT,U, 1-U11 I1U-z2U- y0-QTU :-y2^ 1U11T -y,-- 1QP-M -11--1- --1-1 1QT11 V1V12 M-Py1 1U11^ -2U2y2y2U1 11-11V 1zU-QVy 1--1-1 11-1-1 -1u11 1--1- -11-1U V1-11 -11-21 -U11y 12-11U1- 1--1-11 Q1y1y -1-2UV 112y2 y2y2- -1-1H1z 1yUy,--z 1xZy1 11-,- 1)-11 11^y- ]Q1Q( -V1UU U--zUU ]U1-UZy1 U1yy1 U-y11- ]z1U1 --1-11yU zVT-1 -11-- 1y:U- 1Q:-- U1UU-U -yQy11 U1-11 ]--1z --U11 y1U1-1y %1QyV :V2Y- 2:z:z2 (11Q-1 -U122 y,UU2 -UU11 2V1V1 ,-0-- 12UV1 11zyU -2y2U V22U1 :y:y:U1 UV1U2 121-1 2V1V1 11-YU YU9U2 11y-1 -1y1y2 p180-3 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (page 3) ftsTitle The broadleaf forests of more temperate latitudes - such as those in New England seen here - are largely composed of deciduous trees. These provide glorious autumn colors as they prepare to shed their leaves prior to entering their period of winter dormancy. Ecosystems: Coniferous and Temperate Forests (3 of 3) Broadleaf hardwood forest In the northern hemisphere an extensive belt of forest occurs between latitudes 35 deg and 50 deg N, although vast areas of this belt have been felled, especially in Europe. These forests have more variety of species than their coniferous counterparts to the north. Oak, ash, beech, maple, elm, alder and hickory can form the dominant species depending upon site conditions. Beneath these large trees further layers of smaller trees, shrubs and herbs can be found. Each layer supports its own population of birds, small mammals and insects. In spring and summer, these forests teem with life and provide a wide variety of shape, form and color. In winter, at the northern extremity of these forests, average monthly temperatures fall to less than 5 deg C (41 deg F) and the growing season comes to an end. The response of the trees is to shed their leaves, that is they become dormant, a condition that persists until the next spring when the temperature once again rises above 5 deg C. Although in these northern areas the broadleaf species tend to be deciduous, evergreen species of oak and chestnut, for example, may be found in areas such as southern Europe. Very few undisturbed areas of temperate forest now remain. Only in the protected areas of the Appalachian Mountains of the USA and the Polish and Czech national parks can a semblance of the former luxuriance be found. Many other forest types exist. In the southern hemisphere a very distinctive drought-resistant Eucalyptus forest can be found in southeastern Australia, while in New Zealand and the southern tip of South America, large natural forests of southern beech clothe the mountains. Animal life Throughout the coniferous and temperate forests animals have evolved alongside the developing vegetation. Together, animals and plants form an integrated community, reliant upon each other. The animals feed on the plants, while in return the plants benefit from the animals through pollination by insects, and through the constant clearing of vegetation by the grazing animals, thus making space for new plant growth. In the Boreal forest the cold, dark winters inhibit animal life. Animals survive either by hibernating or by migrating to warmer areas. In summer, however, the forest teems with life. The waterlogged forest floor provides an ideal breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes, leeches and snails. The verdant mosses and lichens are greedily searched out by large herbivores such as moose, elk, reindeer and caribou (all closely related species). Their diets are supplemented by the nutritious young shoots of birch and willow trees. The herbivores are migratory, seldom remaining in one area long enough to overgraze it. More problematic are the myriads of insects. They defoliate the trees, feed on bark and roots, extract sap, form galls and bore into the living wood. Species such as the larch sawfly, pine sawfly and spruce budworm reach epidemic proportions and can devastate vast areas of forest before their life cycle is brought to an abrupt close by the onset of winter. Other insects feed on the animals (including humans), biting, taking blood and spreading diseases. The timber wolf, lynx, arctic hare, bear and wolverine are all preyed on by parasitic creatures, as are large birds such as the spruce grouse and the capercaillie. The mosaic of forest habitats produces a similar diversity of animal life. Logging or fire damage opens out the forest, allowing voles, deer and ground-feeding birds to colonize. In the closed forest, squirrels and crossbill finches feed on the seeds contained in the cones. In turn these species are preyed upon by owls, hawks and pine martens. The temperate forest, with its milder winters and more fertile soils, supports a far greater diversity of animals. Three main habitats exist - the foliage of the canopy, the decaying leaf litter of the forest floor, and the dying and dead wood of the forest. The foliage-feeders - mainly small herbivorous invertebrates but also including a wide range of caterpillars - can totally defoliate a tree in a matter of days. Epidemics of the poplar hawk moth can destroy its host tree, the poplars. Bark and sap are also consumed. The large number of insects provide a great attraction for the insectivorous birds. The tit family of Europe and the chikadees of North America eat a wide variety of insects. The different birds feed in specific parts of the forest, thus reducing competition. On the forest floor, the abundant grassy herb layer provides grazing for deer. Formerly, the European bison and its North American counterpart could be found grazing the forest glades. Rodents such as voles, mice, squirrels and chipmunks consume vast amounts of herbage. The droppings of all of these animals help to fertilize the soil and recycle the nutrients. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * MIGRATION * THE BIOSPHERE * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture UUU,1P)- MtqtPM QPu(Q(uu(u,(Q t)t)$-p-Q Q(Q)P, ),U,M,),y,Q(u,$ QPqQpu,,M,,L tQU0- $-qPqupQtMtuLup-t,uLu,M Q,)PQp,$ Q,1,$-(P-L-P -0Q,1ux-Q(u)u )P(-tUpP)x-$(- )P,M0- -tQQ, $-tMxUy,- -,U-0 yQL-U $QL,uLutMtpQt)-L$uLQ $)PQMPQ)P L-Q),M-L (Q,)P) ,)u-L-pUPMPQt,),u) )P-qPuPu(QxQ x1y0-1T1T1 PuHQt)-L,-LQL-,Q$-L- uPp,P P,)P- M0Q,p- ytMtQpP Q(P-x- )--,U -P)-M,u) -,L-P) -UTUQ,M0 $-L,HQptPuL,H,upQtPMP(QL,-L $QqtuLQLQL-q,u PUuLP),- -1-,M,P)PQU,-y QqPP(utUtpQ$-U-)P- -U,U, -0y,-,- PQqtqQtMP$-H-uM,$ 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-1111U1 U111y UU1-1U 11yy111 yUQU11 -1111y -1-1- 1U111 11^119 1U1-1 111-11--1-11 1-y1- -]y11- -TU1-- 1-Y11-1-- 1-1U1 U1111y ]U111-Y 1911U -1111 -1111 1U111-U1 11-1U1 -111- ]yY111 11U111 11-11 -U111 yy]y1 UYUy] 1-1-11U] U]U1] 1-111- 1-1U-1 11-1- -111-11yU]1-91- U1-11 11-9U1 1111U U11111 y11-1 1--1-11U1 ]yU-] U11-111- 1111y 1-11U1 11]11 11U11 1U91- ]y]-y U]U11 UyU1-1- 1U11- -1U1-1 yUU1U1 11111- -1--1 111U1-- 1-11y11 U-111 p182-1 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Tropical Forests (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Brazilian tropical rain forest. The vast array of vegetation in rain forests helps take up carbon dioxide and supply oxygen, which is vital in balancing the world's climate. #Ecosystems: Tropical Forests (1 of 2) Tropical forests contain some of the richest ranges of wildlife and vegetation to be found anywhere in the world. Some 30-40 million km2 (12-15 million sq mi) - between around one fifth and one quarter of the Earth's total land area - is covered with tropical forests. There are four main types of tropical forest: evergreen forest, moist forest, deciduous forest and dry woodland. Strictly speaking, any forest between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn can be called 'tropical forest', but the term is usually applied to forests within 10 north and south of the equator. Our understanding of ecological relationships in tropical forests is steadily increasing. For example, it has been discovered that many trees have evolved chemical defenses against leaf eaters (especially insects, which tend to cause the most damage). Another important discovery is the way in which certain fruit have evolved in shape and timing to be available to animals that disperse the seed (by excreting undigested seeds), but not to those that destroy the seed as they eat it. However, with the vast amounts of species that occur in the forests, and the practical difficulty of studying them, there are doubtless many fascinating discoveries still to be made. Tropical evergreen forest Tropical evergreen forest - also called tropical rain forest - is located in the equatorial belt, within 4 north and south of the equator. Although predominantly evergreen, such forests do contain many deciduous species. Tropical evergreen forest receives at least 4000 mm (156 in) of rainfall each year (with no dry season), and average monthly temperatures are between 21 and 27 C (70 and 80 F). In these hot, humid conditions vegetation attains its most luxuriant development. The leaves and branches of the trees form a closed canopy, through which very little light can penetrate downwards. Where a gap is left by a fallen tree, young trees compete to reach the light, and hence forest trees typically have tall, thin, branchless trunks, only putting out branches and leaves at the top, where the light is. This competition encourages a very rapid rate of growth - as much as 10 m (33 ft) in 5 years. The top layer of vegetation consists of scattered trees (up to 60 m / 200 ft in height) that tower above a closed-canopy layer. These are the so-called emergent trees. Below these the vegetation is sometimes classified into various layers, although this is more a convenience for description and analysis than a reality, as layers often overlap and merge. Despite serious deforestation, tropical evergreen rain forest remains the single most extensive vegetation type at about 10-12 million km2 (4-5 million sq mi). Although the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by vegetation is small compared to that absorbed by the oceans, the sheer amount of vegetation in tropical forests does contribute something to the reduction of the 'greenhouse effect', and so helps to regulate the heat balance of the planet. More importantly, however, the vast amounts of carbon dioxide given off when tropical forests are cleared and burnt are a significant factor in the build-up of the greenhouse effect. It is estimated that at least 2 million different species of plants and animals exist in tropical evergreen forest, only one in six of which has been identified and named. Variety of shape and form is infinite. In the Malay peninsula alone there are 2500 different tree species. Tropical moist forest Seasonal rainfall variation soon becomes apparent around 4 from the equator. Total annual rainfall is reduced to 2000-3000 mm (78-118 in) and for up to three months each year there may be as little as 100 mm (4 in) rainfall per month. In response, the forest becomes less luxuriant. Trees are less closely spaced, fewer layers of vegetation occur, and the number of different plant and animal species becomes fewer. Normally the trees are evergreen, but in the occasional long (14-day) dry spell, they actually shed a variable proportion of their leaves. Tropical deciduous forest Moving yet further from the equator, (5-15 north and south), the seasonality of rainfall becomes greater and the dry season lasts for four to six months. Annual rainfall may be as low as 1500 mm (59 in). The trees becomes shorter, leaves become smaller and a deciduous phase becomes the only way to survive the dry period. Frequent fires ravage the forest and many species show fire-resistant features, such as thick bark, seeds that only germinate after exposure to heat, and branches that leave the trunk high above the ground. Tropical open dry woodland By 15-20 north and south of the equator extreme seasonal aridity occurs and rainfall of less than 1000 mm (39 in) per year is typical. Here, the forest is replaced by small, gnarled trees around 5 m (16 1/2 ft) high, many of which are covered by green thorns up to 5 cm (2 in) long. Burning and the constant foraging of grazing animals (such as antelope, zebra, giraffe and elephant) keep the forest in check. This kind of woodland only occurs on the high African plateau, but, following at least 2 million years of human use of the landscape, trees today are secondary to the grasses. These areas form the great tropical grasslands or savannahs . Fertility In the past it was assumed that the luxuriant tropical forests must inevitably overlie a rich and fertile soil. Scientists conveniently overlooked the evidence from the slash-and-burn economies of the native peoples in which areas of forest were felled, then burnt to provide ash in which crops were grown. After two or three years the fertility of the site was lost and a new area was opened up. How had the fertility been lost? The answer, when it was discovered, was a surprise. Because decomposition is so rapid, and because clay particles go into solution owing to the constantly high temperatures, it is not possible for a clay-humus complex to form. In all other latitudes the clay-humus complex is the method whereby soil fertility is retained. Without a clay-humus complex, tropical ecosystems have devised their own unique method of retaining fertility. The nutrients are held in the living portion of the forest, i.e. above ground. When a leaf falls to the forest floor it quickly decomposes (36-72 hours) and the nutrients are re-absorbed by the roots. If the forest is cut away there is then no mechanism for holding on to nutrients - and hence massive and rapid leaching (washing away) of nutrients takes place. In many areas the soils are also inherently infertile, as they have been leached by heavy rain storms over such a long period. Human influence Tropical deforestation has two main causes. The first is commercial loggers, who are attracted by the valuable hardwood trees, worth up to $1000 each, scattered haphazardly among commercially valueless species. The total felling of rain forest has been largely replaced by selective logging, where only valuable trees are removed. The second reason is the influx of agricultural settlers, often emigrants from urban slums, who have taken advantage of the new roadways into the virgin forest. In South America alone they are largely responsible for the burning of 25000 km2 (9653 sq mi) of forest annually to make way for tropical grassland on which beef cattle, destined for northern hemisphere markets, are reared. Leaching of the poor soils leads to a rapid decline in grass growth, forcing the settlers to continually search for newly felled land, leaving behind a landscape known as 'Green Desert'. These areas are commercially valueless, comprising nothing more than weeds and scrub. Figures from the Food and Agriculture Organization show that 180000 km2 (112000 sq mi) of tropical evergreen forest is cleared annually. Satellite information has shown that Amazonian deforestation is 17.5% greater than land-based surveys suggested. So rapid is the depletion of rain forest that, apart from specially protected reserves, all rain forest will have disappeared by the year 2020. The loss of the tropical forest resource is remarkable when one considers its phenomenal rate of natural renewal if left undisturbed, and also its vast scientific and commercial wealth if used in a sustainable manner. Instead of clear felling, the continuous harvesting of forest products (gums, rubber and tannin) along with agroforestry (the use of multi-layered cropping systems in forest clearings) can provide a greater cumulative income than from a once-off logging process. Third World nations, deep in financial crisis, are often compelled to opt for the quick financial return gained from logging. Great hope has been placed on 'debt-for-nature swaps' in which northern hemisphere countries write off part of a developing nation's debt in exchange for a guaranteed sustainable management policy. Such schemes, however, can only be successful in a limited number of cases. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * FORESTRY Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1T0]T10 U,-1,-1, T]T01U U0T1U L0yTP T,U0U U,1xx ]0U,U ,TTP] L10U0 ]0U,M1T U1T9U U0T,U ,T,Q\ ,](,1T ,,T1,] U0-$1, 1U0Q( ,1T1T U00T1 T1U01 1P1T0 1T0101 01T,U]T 0Q0P] LU1,9T U-T0,0 9-0Q0y1P(0U1 1,U,T0 U,U,U,U, P0T01 0UT-, 1P0,0 ,1U0P T-U,T ],09x T-TQT ,yT0Q0 ,01,U P0U,P U0U81T10Q]( U,U0]0T8P1\ 1U0T] 9x1P0 1x10T 01T]y 01T9T U0T10 \U09\10 ,T0U0 TT,0yP ,,(T0 1T1-0 ]x5U0 UTQ0$U T-,-,Q Q0,U0 x,$UTUx TT,0P0 P,x,U P10P1 xTU,$ T,P1U PUx,xQ U,U$, y\U]T10 -,010 -,y-0$ U\1P1 x9Py, 10U0- p182-2 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Tropical Forests (page 2) ftsTitle A cross-section showing the stratification of vegetation and animal life in a Southeast Asian forest. Upper-air community: mostly insectivorous birds and bats, characterized by fast flight and great maneuverability. Also birds of prey such as eagles. Main-canopy community: birds and fruit bats. These spend much time perched so that they can feed on the leaves, fruits, and flowers. Mammals such as monkeys and squirrels - again feeding on fruits, nuts, leaves, bark, and occasionally on insects. Mid-zone flying animals: insectivorous birds and bats. Mid-zone climbing animals: a large group of mixed feeders, mostly mammals such as squirrels and monkeys, but also snakes and amphibians such as tree frogs. Movement is helped by the numerous lianas that cross this space. These animals move vertically within their range, and may spend some time on the ground. Large ground animals: mainly mammals (deer, various members of the pig family, elephants and some predatory carnivores) and also some flightless birds (such as jungle fowl) and large reptiles (such as pythons and monitor lizards). This group are poor climbers - instead they forage over a wide area. Small ground animals: a huge group of insectivores and mixed feeders. Many emerge to feed only for a few hours (especially at dawn or at dusk) then hide away. By staggering their feeding times many different species can live in an area without too much confrontation, although they may eat the same foods (this may also apply to other animal groups). Ecosystems: Tropical Forests (2 of 2) There are many possible explanations for the extremely high diversity of the tropical forest. The high productivity and massive biomass supported is undoubtedly an important factor. A large biomass in an ecosystem allows a high degree of structural complexity, and this encourages the evolution of many specialized insect species, each occupying its own preferred microhabitat more efficiently than any of its possible competitors. In addition, separate communities can develop within each of the canopy layers. However, not all of the highly productive ecosystems of the world are diverse (reed swamps, for example, are productive but not diverse). So other factors must be involved. The stability of the climate, both seasonally and long term, may permit higher diversity. At one time it was believed that the tropics had retained a stable climate throughout the last ice age (reaching its coldest about 20000 years ago), and that these stable conditions allowed a greater period for species to diversify. But it is now known that the rain forests became drier at that time and were probably much fragmented. The argument can be turned on its head and the fragmentation could itself be regarded as a source of evolutionary diversification, since evolution could have proceeded separately in each forest fragment - much as it does on isolated islands - before the fragments joined together again. A final source of novelty is the mosaic of patches within the forest. Wet and dry regions and sites in different stages of recovery following the death of a tree, or in an area where trees have been blown down, means that species can occupy different stages in time as well as locations in space. Whatever the reason for the diversity of the forest, this wealth of species must be regarded as a vital resource for the future of mankind. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE * FORESTRY Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Animation .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText Animation Animatio.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "Animation" defaultPage fName /.tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Tropical vegetation cross-section wvwvwwpwwv wwvww Q}vRvRwvRR }vRRvw|SR} vR}vRvRR}v }vRRwW ,PRv4 }vRRv{ wwvwv|Rv |wwv| pwwvwvww wvwpwp RWwR}RvR vRvRvv}RRw vvRvRRvv}R vRRvRwv}vR wpwpww vv}Rv} Rwv}RR}vRv R}vRv}vSvR vRv}vRvRvR RvRR}|Q wvwRwRwRvR vv}RvR}RvR RwR}v Sw}v}RvRRQ vvwvw wuXvww 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$H$HIH$H$I HH$HHI$ $IHH$HHI$ $IHH$HHI$ $IHH$HHI$ H$HH$ p184-1 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Grasslands (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Leopards, whose range extends from Africa across southern Asia, are creatures both of the forest and of more open bush, where the grasslands are interspersed with trees. Leopards are agile climbers, both sleeping and storing their kills in trees. Ecosystems: Grasslands (1 of 3) In undisturbed forest ecosystems, grasses form a small proportion of the ground-layer vegetation, occurring mainly as small, isolated clumps. Once the forest is removed, and the grasses are exposed to direct sunlight, however, they grow rapidly to produce a continuous carpet of grass called a sward. Almost 30% of the Earth's land surface is covered by grassland. Most grassland has appeared within the last 2000 years, as pastoral agriculture (the rearing of sheep, cattle, etc.) has spread at the expense of forests. Apart from these young agricultural grasslands there are also some very old 'natural' grasslands - although there is some doubt over just how natural they are. The North American prairie, the Russian steppe, the South America pampas and the African savannah are all examples of very ancient grassland. They were 'discovered' by European settlers from about 1650 onwards and were immediately recognized as the perfect location for cattle and sheep farming. It was once thought that the areas occupied by old grasslands marked the occurrence of special types of climate that were in some way unsuitable for the growth of trees. Certainly, they all suffer cold (or very cold) average winter temperatures (typically -10 deg C / 4 deg F) and summers are invariably hot (28 deg C / 82 deg F). The biggest climatic limitation against trees is the low rainfall - as low as 500 mm (20 in) per annum and rarely more than 1000 m (40 in) - and the high evaporation rate in summer. Even this climate, however, would not prevent the growth of dry, thorn forest. It is now known that the critical factor in the creation and maintenance of grasslands has been fire. The dry climate would have allowed natural fires caused by lightning strikes to have burnt areas of forest. Repeated and frequent burning (every 5-10 years) would have been sufficient to prevent the recolonization of the area by trees. Once established, natural grasslands became the centers of development for huge numbers of mammals, which consumed vast amounts of grass and trampled and nibbled any young trees that attempted to grow. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * BIRDS * MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture TP,y,L,Q L,x,0, ,TUPy,,0Q0Q PxPUPL ,xx0P tTPMP, T,UY$ L,LTu0 -,xPQ, xUx1xT ,q,,$,y U$t,t]P ,yTPLQ( txUt,TP(P x,1U\y t0UTx x,p,t(t10T ,y,P-0 0Q(T-0P0 -(PL, xt,M0QP ,y,P( Ux,yT TPxUP yxU$U $TQTPx, L-P)TQ yL,,1 x,Ppy u\u\y ,x]xl1, T$x-PT U$P]xQx,( QT,x1 xTP(H TP1yTt yUy0P1P x,y0yUtUx TUTP, LPyT1 PP,(0Q0Q,U P,,Py -]$U,),(y yx$T0tP( PP,0xt]t 1,UUxP 0UT-(UtU 1xPM, 0$,PLt PPPy]P] 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,M,PTU TtxUt0tq,U,TtTQ),t( xUtTt PLxPL$ xPt)PPL LUx-L UPLtTt,,pt LP,(P,p,tpPPPt xPxt(tPTtT$tLtPt PUtPq tUHUP, -x-LPuTux PttLu y,LPL ,p,PLy, P,LPPL,P PTL,p (0t,( ,x$Px, ,LTtx PTtt)x, ptTPTPL 1V2U: t(PPM,-0t-L0 x,LPp]tTxPx P,p,1t(u L,P,y, Pyx,xu(tU, ,pPP(P TtxPt ,xUQ,L,P(PU Qx,PLP -PLPUP-T, PU$,P p,$PPL$,P t,xPx,tLPPL,t(t t,LPPL TPTQPL p184-2 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Grasslands (page 2) ftsTitle Ecosystems: Grasslands (2 of 3) The biology of grasses Grasses belong to the gramineae family and include a wide diversity of species. Grasses can grow in every imaginable habitat, from the very dry to the very wet, from salty sea-level sites to windswept mountain summits. Unlike other plants, grasses generally grow faster if they are grazed by animals. They are also able to survive both burning and flooding. The grass family has a vigorous genetic structure, and this has been utilized by generations of farmers for the breeding of grain crops (wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, rice, etc.). Grasses increase their numbers in two ways. If their flowers are cross-pollinated, seeds are produced from which new plants grow, so encouraging vigor in the stock. Grasses also rely on vegetative reproduction. In this process, side shoots quickly develop their own leaves and roots. Unlike most other plants, grasses can make new growth from two quite separate points. They possess the customary apical growing points located at the tip of each stem. In addition, they have many intermediate growing points at intervals along the stems. If the top of the stem is eaten by a grazing animal then the intermediate growing points become activated and develop side shoots. Provided grazing is not continuous, grassland can support a large animal population. Major natural grasslands Within the tropics are found the savannah grasslands. They are most extensive in Africa. Sustained by the summer rains, the savannah grasses grow to at least 2 m (6 1/2 ft) and sometimes 3 m (10 ft) tall. They support a huge population of seed-eating birds and large herbivorous mammals (antelope, wildebeest, zebra), and nowadays increasing herds of domestic cattle and goats. The large wild herbivores in turn support large carnivores (lion, leopard, cheetah, hyena, jackal). Beyond the tropics, extensive areas of old grassland can be found in North America and in Russia. Both areas experience generally similar climates - very cold, snowy winters (with several months below 0 deg C / 32 deg F) and hot summers (aver age temperatures above 21 deg C / 70 deg F). In North America, the European settlers cut their way through the eastern deciduous forests suddenly to be confronted by a 'sea of grass', the prairies. Grassland existed in a huge tract from the Appalachian Mountains westwards to the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains. Vast herds of bison migrated across the prairie, following the seasonal distribution of rainfall and the associated new growth of the grasses. Wherever the bison was to be found so too was the prairie dog. These small ground-living squirrels (not dogs) dig extensive burrows up to 3 m (10 ft) into the prairie soils. It has been estimated that in an area of 110 500 km2 (42 640 sq mi) there once lived some 40 million prairie dogs. Their burrows caused buildings to collapse, roads to subside and farm animals to break their legs as they fell into the burrows. As a result the prairie dog has been hunted almost to extinction in some parts of North America. Evidence from North American Indian cultures suggests that bison and grasslands have existed for about 10 000 years. It was assumed that the prairie was a natural vegetation unit that had developed in response to soil or climatic factors. It is now thought that the prairies are the result either of frequent natural fires or of fires started by the indigenous Indian population, who burnt the vegetation every few years in order to eliminate trees and encourage the grasses. These in turn supported the all-important bison. With the coming of European settlers and firearms, the bison were hunted to the verge of extinction. The steppes, located almost entirely in Russia, Kazakhstan and the Ukraine, have a remarkably similar botanical structure to the prairies. In the summer, grasses grow to just over 1 m (3 ft) high and die quickly in the first frosts of autumn. Covered by the winter snows until the following spring, they quickly decompose to form a thick humus material. Soils beneath the grasslands are typically very dark brown or black. The color is due to the large quantities of humus, which constitutes up to 15% of the soil. In North America these soils are called 'prairie earth', while in Russia the famous 'chernozem' soils occur. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * BIRDS * MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread __e ; ee_deeg; ;Ae8; _A;A;;e A;A ; _A5#; AA5;A A;A;A A;;5;;A; G;;AA;A;5A A;;A;A AA;AGe; ;A;AA;; 5AG;;A;A;; A;; A ;5;A;A5;e A;A;;AGA5A A;;A5 5;;A; 5;A5G \e;eGe_ eA;;AA; ;;AA;AA;AA ;;A;; ;A;;AA;;A; A;AA;;A ;A;;AAG;AA AA;eAA;AA; AA;ek;; ;;eZ; ;;AA;;A;A; A;A;G;A;A; AA;AA;Ae A;A;A;A5A AA5;AA; ;;AA; ;A;A@ _;;eAA;AA 5A;A; A;5;; ekAAee eA;AA; ;AA;AA;; _;AAGA; Ae;A;A e;AA5 eAA;A; ;AAGA;AA;A AA;A;A;; ;;A;A ;A;AGA5;A; *V_!; ;5A;AA; eA5AA ;;AA;GA;A; A;AAf; eAA;5A ;;5A;A;A ;;A;Af; ;eeAAe ;;A;AA 5AA); A;;AA'; eA;A; Aee;Ae; A;A); eA5AAe eAA;A AA;AA eA;A;A 5AAee ;;:^] A;Aee AA5/; 5;AA;AA;A A;A;;AAk ;_OVe 5;ee;A;e ee5,; 5AA5A;5 \Ae;;ee; _9,,*; AA;ee; d+4;;e ee;;e A;;e<; ;e_;e;; e:^eO^d+^ _ee;; :^8%^ ;ee;;] 5;ee5A ;;WU]O /;;55;;/5A ;5;;/;;5A AeAAeAAe;A _AAeAAe;;_ ;Ae;;eAAeA A_;;_ 5;AA;5 A;A;A;A;A; A;A;A;5A;A ;A;A;A;A;A ;A;A;A;A;A A;;A; ;AA;A;A;eA A;;AAeAA_A A_AA_A;e;A AAeAeAAeAA eAAeAAeAAe AAeAAeAAeA AeAAe;;eAA eAA_;;_;;_ zN+OO 34Yed]] NONONONONO NONONONONO HNONONONON ONONONONON ONONONONON ONONO HHNIHNI NINONONONO NOHOHNINHO HNHINH OHOON NONOO ,,O+,, -2OOH WO,{* W4_PN VN,,O V,lOO H2_eWN YONOXY NV2:tr +XO,|+ H^Xe]H X3Q+P VVOON +d^^VN NW3W+ $XP8O OO33W HW27O N4X@^ 4ONWPN 3^4,QJ]3'W HO]_4, ^3,XO}XW OP3X-, -,*3,WN d43-W#O VOONWPN NO4;dN H^4ONO433, -X|,W U443-3-'O eeWVO 4.NO{.^4%Y e33',,$O NWPN+O W:ee_ ;-NO}XX- :4.93-V$O N^3.NV4^;, 4;3-&W HOPV_Xe_z IV:'V*YX4X WY-|} XX]+_ WzV24W*O NNO]Ye *];XO }Re+W_ 4YdXYXW ;.2NXY 55VON+O }YY_WY W434W U.^^+ .^XY_ HO^5XUN NOOs23]442 3{2NHO2 ^RXWX NOHNO ,zOON ]]O+}}V OH1X55XtUO 44XeV OHOW54544] 343:34X2-O _WNO% .}}*ONU NYYWV*H zHO$u ^OON}O NY|XWH {eeWOH|O XVOHzO X3N*|}5 ONP{__] $+OO1+HZO NN,Q__^ HHNHHNH H$HOO Wee^^ WW^]d _e_ee e45@eW NVXe_e__e ^^XX-. YWXNW NOVX^ ONONONON, 2'4PN NHVQX }Y}3H vWXOOH, wYXON }}2*O }4XPN X^UV3 }YVNON 3WW.YYWWYY N,}YYVN WXXVY5Y Y^^]POH e^dON NO,UWY5} W]^Se_ }YXN O NOXXY ^X_eW WNOOH W@_ed N^}5YON H:4|}W Nt}YY 4.Y}VN NOX-X} *||OO* }|NOOH N2.}W ONW}X N:}}W NV}YW HXY}V WNOO% *|YXN W5}|H NVY_|N U}5WV X+OO|YW YUOHU YYP)O VXVOOH }5VN(O \w_ON'O NYWNOONW}X ]YY(O NP}YON&O {}Y'O 1YXPN H{_YN&O NV|Y3&O NW}VI YYN%O |YW%O YXN$O YVN"O |4U"O N{^"O +4Y O NWXON NP_0O z{OOH NP]/O Nv}+O |VNOO +O^9N NO}VN HONI$-O OOVVO N+X{U{]&O Hz_dV N|OHO ^OHNH(O z$HOHOHOH OHOHOHOHOH OONd] +WV&O W-V'O z+WXXVW&O zXVV/O p184-3 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Grasslands (page 3) ftsTitle Springbok in the open savannah of the Etosha National Park, Namibia. The park is home to vast herds of herbivores, such as elands, elephants, zebras and rhinoceros, which are preyed upon by the vultures, lions and other big cats. Ecosystems: Grasslands (3 of 3) Southern-hemisphere grasslands At one time there were vast areas of grassland south of the Tropic of Capricorn, though as in the northern hemisphere, the original vegetation has been much changed due to agriculture. In Uruguay and northern Argentina a type of grass known as pampas once occurred. It grew up to 2 m (6 1/2 ft) high and consisted of 'bunch' grasses with bare soil between the tussocks. A similar tussock grassland, known as veld, once covered a large area of the high plateau of southern Africa. The extent of the original veld has grown considerably since the 1960s into a barren, overgrazed and eroded area. This has partly been caused by the ravaging droughts that have hit southern Africa, and partly by unsuitable farming practices. In the South Island of New Zealand an area called the Canterbury Plains has been an extensive grassland for at least 250 years, and possibly for several thousands of years. It is now thought probable that the earliest Polynesian settlers burnt the original forest to encourage grasses for huge flightless grazing birds (the moas, extinct from about 1750), upon which the Maori population were once totally dependent. The fate of the grasslands Few areas of natural grassland either in the tropics or in the mid-latitudes now remain. The temperate grasslands have been largely converted to agricultural use, being particularly suited for the production of cereals - they are sometimes called the 'bread baskets' of the world. The North American prairies alone will be producing almost 200 million tons of grain for export by the year 2000. Tropical grasslands are also being converted to agriculture, although with mixed success. Tropical diseases and the variability of the annual rains have made food production an erratic process. The famines that occurred in many north African countries in the mid-1980s was due in part to the unsuccessful conversion of the savannahs. * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * BIRDS * MAMMALS * THE BIOSPHERE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 119U0U0 1191U1Y11T11U01 1111T1]1 11T11]1U9]1]01 11U9]1U1 191U1 -811T119- ]1-01U U-0-11]]1U1 1U11T]U-011T11U11 U1-0U T11]1 0]11911 1-019U U-111 T11U11 0U011U1]1 10-1U0U1 01U1U0 11T110U 19U1T1 T11-9T1]11- 11T919U0U U]1U0 501U8U111]1011011T U]11U -111--09U- -1U1T 11U1U U11U1T1 111-U1 T1U91 -91U11]0] 1-01U101-19U11U] 1Y9-1U91-T11111T U-T1U11 -1U10 -9U1U111U1111 ]11T111 ,-1U111 111101YU1U- 0111- 1]1U01 Y1091 0U1T10 T11118- 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:V:^:2: :^:^2^:^:V:: :V:^:^: 2^:^2^2^: ^2:^: 2^:^:: ^2^2^: ^::^:V ^2^:V :^:V:^ ^2^:^2:::V ::V:^:V: V::V: V:2:^ ^::^:: 2^:V: ^::^:^ ^:::^2:^:^2^ :^::^ :V^2^: :^2^: 2^:^:^: ^::2^ ::2^: ::V:V: ^:V::V V:^:: ^:^:^ 2^::^: 2^:V: ^:^2^ :::2^ :^::^: :^::^ :^:2^:^ :^:2^: ::^2^ ^2:::: ^:^:^::2 2^::2 2^:^2 :V::: ^::V::^ 2^:V: ^:V:::2 ^2:V: :V:2^: V::V:^ ^2:^:V :V::V::^:^ :^::V V::^:^ 2^::V:^ :^2:^ ^:^2^2 ^:2^:: :2^:V: :2:^: :^:2: ^::2:^ V::V::^: :^:::^::^ ^2^:2 :2^::: ^:::^;:^:^:^::^:: ^2:^: ^:_:^::^:^::^: ^:2^:V :V:2::_::_:: :^:_:>:_::^: :V:^2 ^::^:: b b :_:^::^: 2^:^: : b b : ::^;^:^:V:: ^:b b^:^:^: V::>^?^::^:^2 ^2^:2 2^:V: ^2^:V ::^:: V:^:^ p186-1 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Extreme (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords The environmental gradient, showing the zone of tolerance in which most plants and animals flourish. However, some specially adapted species actually thrive better in the zone of stress, as there is less competition with other species. Ecosystems: Extreme (1 of 5) Most habitats found on the planet have at least one factor in their environmental make-up which acts as a limiting factor on plants and animals. These limits make their greatest impact in the deserts, alpine regions and polar areas. But even in such extreme environments it is remarkable how many plants and animals have adapted successfully to the harsh conditions. All species are said to possess an environmental tolerance range within which they must live. The diagram of the environmental gradient shows that at the extreme points the population size becomes restricted because either a severe shortage or an excess of a commodity creates conditions of stress and causes death. Only when the life-giving necessities are available in optimum amounts do plants and animals reach the maximum numbers as in the centre of the diagram. Most species will migrate to those regions in which they find their own unique blend of environmental requirements. Some plants and animals seem especially able to survive in areas that at first sight appear hostile to the very existence of life. However, with few species able to colonize the edges of the zone of tolerance and fewer still in the stress zone, competition between species is actually reduced. For some hardy plants and animals, life in these marginal areas can actually be easier than fighting for survival in the over-populated zone of optimum conditions. * MOUNTAINS * ICE * DESERTS * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread A5;;5;;5;; 5;;5;;5;;5 ;;5;;5;;5; ;5;;5;;5;; 5;;5;;5 5;;5;;5;;5 ;;5;;5;;5; ;5;;5;;5;; 5;;5;;5;;5 ;;5;;5;5/G ssrHN$ H*HNs NH*H* p186-2 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Extreme (page 2) ftsTitle A lone cactus in the Nazca Desert on the Pacific side of the Andes. Cacti survive long periods of drought by their ability to store water in enlarged, fleshy stems. Their leaves are reduced to spines to minimize evaporation. Ecosystems: Extreme (2 of 5) Desert ecosystems Deserts receive small and erratic amounts of precipitation, usually less than 250 mm (10 in) per annum. Of greater importance than the amount of rainfall is the effectiveness of the moisture. If a desert receives 100 mm (4 in) of rainfall per annum in only two heavy storms then the effectiveness of the moisture is less than if the rain falls on 20 occasions as fine drizzle of 5 mm (0.2 in). Temperature is also important. When it exceeds 20 deg C (68 deg F), evaporation rates become very high. Deserts cover more than one third of the Earth's land surface, but only quite a small proportion of desert area is sandy - the rest is bare rock or covered with scree-like debris. As well as hot deserts such as the Sahara and Kalahari Deserts, there are also temperate and cold deserts such as the Gobi. Many such deserts owe their origin to being many thousands of kilometers from the oceans, and hence, the rain-bearing winds never reach them. The vegetation in all deserts shows extreme adaptation to suit the droughty conditions. Smallness of size, leaves reduced to spines, long, deep roots and the ability to grow very quickly at the onset of rains are some of the most useful adaptations. The seeds of many desert plants can remain dormant for up to five years, awaiting the occurrence of damp conditions suitable for germination. Other species have adapted to the long dry spells by storing water in enlarged, fleshy stems. These are the so-called succulent plants of which the New World cacti are the best- known examples. The most spectacular cactus is the barrel cactus, which was traditionally used as a water reserve by the American Indians. In the Old World the Euphorbia group of plants predominate in deserts. The stems of these plants are filled with sticky latex, which resists evaporation. Animal life is surprisingly varied. Most desert animals are active primarily at night or during the brief periods of early morning and late afternoon when the heat is not as intense. During the day they remain in cooler underground burrows, or in the shade of overhanging rocks. Rodents, snakes, lizards, a few birds, spiders and insects are the main animal types (although there are also a few larger herbivores and carnivores). Many desert animals - including the dromedary - show strange adaptations for life in these extreme conditions. Neither the Saharan jerboa (a tiny rodent) nor the North American kangaroo rat, for example, appear to drink any water, but instead obtain their moisture directly from their food. They do this by oxidizing food substances containing hydrogen, and this provides sufficient quantities of water. Many desert animals have unusually efficient excretion systems in which the waste products of salts, urea and solids contain virtually no water. An absence of sweat glands, large skin flaps (particularly large ears) from which an excess of heat can be lost and an ability to lose a large proportion of body weight in the dry season are common characteristics of desert animals. Each year some 120 000 km2 (46 300 sq mi) of new desert is formed by a process called desertification. This is due to over- cultivation, deforestation, over-grazing and poor irrigation. Desertification in the southern fringes of the Sahara contributed to the famines in that region in the 1970s and 80s. * MOUNTAINS * ICE * DESERTS * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture Ty0y] t0U0P0 P1P1P $9x1] ,1,]1 x0y\$ P1T,u 1x1P] 0x0x1 UxUx$ by8P] ]t9L9 0yUTy]y ]y\y0 1TUUTyU\UTH 1TTP1x -,T1Uy0 0U,Ly9 9,x0T1 9y1y]T ]y\-T $Ux0xT 0y]TT Ty]x- QTU]y ]T1T T$UP1t x]Pp1 U\UT]T \,T0P \LTUUT, ]1x$yT ]Uy0y]P ]L]tT y0P1xU T]x1x 9L1P1T0 xUyX]U TT0yT 10TUx]x t,UTT0 ,y8yy]U xUU00 y01,y]U1 U,UT1TP ]1Tay ],LTTUT, 1]y8, TyTP)P 0UTUxT\ ,]L1T ]P]U\U0 1,1T] y00U0 xy0xUT, UxTT, H0xTt -T]T1 T]P]] Q$]TU ]UTT0 ]T1U] ]x1y0 $0]TP PTUU0 0yUP] ]UTU1]TU0yx1 ]Ux1xx1 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-UUTTT1TU0x10y1,1y UUyyT110UUT 1UxU1xUT-y 11TxU l9yT, p186-3 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Extreme (page 3) ftsTitle Ecosystems: Extreme (3 of 5) Alpine ecosystems Strong winds, low temperatures and short (three-month) summers characterize the alpine ecosystem. Spring and autumn are often completely missing: the winter snows melt quickly as the air temperature rises above 0 deg C (32 deg F), while at the end of summer, active life for all plants and animals is brought to an abrupt end at the onset of the first snows. There is no precise elevation at which alpine conditions can be said to begin. At or near the equator alpine conditions begin within the range 4000-5300 m (13 100-17 400 ft). That figure falls gradually until by latitude 60 deg north - in Norway for example - alpine conditions begin about 300 m (1000 ft). * MOUNTAINS * ICE * DESERTS * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1:- 1- :1:U: p186-4 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Extreme (page 4) ftsTitle Alpine plants - such as these Ranunculus glacialis (members of the buttercup family) - are often characterized by low height and a habit of forming cushions to preserve heat. Ecosystems: Extreme (4 of 5) The alpine environment is one of extreme contrast. A plant may find its leaves in bright sunlight and at a temperature of more than 10 deg C (50 deg F) while its roots may be embedded in ice crystals at 0 deg C (32 deg F). Many alpine plants show xeromorphic features (modifications to ensure water conservation). At the highest elevations (more than 5000 m / 16 400 ft), a far greater amount of intense ultraviolet light is received due to the thinner atmosphere. This light can stimulate intense growth rates. It also causes genetic mutations and probably explains why alpine plants are able to hybridize with an ease not seen in other ecosystems. Alpine vegetation is usually very low growing, seeking the protection of any rock or furrow in order to escape the almost persistent strong winds. They often grow as 'cushions', which help build up heat within the plant. In early summer, alpine plants become a blaze of color to attract the plentiful insects. Individual plants may survive for many years. Animal life is confined to small mammals, such as marmots and voles, which live in burrows. However, larger herbivores such as chamois, ibex, bighorns and yaks also survive at high altitudes, as do carnivores such as foxes, bears and snow leopards. Many birds visit these areas in summer, laying their eggs in shallow nests shaped more from stones than from twigs and grasses. Tropical alpine areas show many unique features, in particular a tendency for plants which occur lower down the mountain to grow to a giant size. Thus on Kilimanjaro giant lobelias and groundsel reach 2 m (7 ft) high, and in the tropical Andes giant members of the daisy family occur. * MOUNTAINS * ICE * DESERTS * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture y01yU U]yyUUT u(1Q,] 1P1x1 ,--0P 1,y^T -T1yY x1-y]Uy 1P(U] -1L1Q (yUU-U -1-x1U1U0 1)1101 y-UY,1 0-1,- (-yTQU t-0xU- ),U-1 1U0y-T-( U1Q0y 11X1-T1 U1yx1 P1P1x1T- ,yQT, 0yT-Uy )1y-0 -1,11 :T1yU--] y1Q0P1y]y ]yY,11T1 UxyUU 1xUy1 ,UUxU -1,UU |UTQT1-L1 QUyUU- 1y,y0yyU 0Q0yUQ UUy0yT- U0yyUU1yy 1y-Uy YU-Uy1 1T1PU 1y01x11UU -1PUU,yx1 $Uxyy 11|UU- y-U1- yUyyUUTUxU y0UUTUP1 y0,QTyUy 0y-0yTP UQ1U1,U P,U-Ty1 1,-,, yUxUU Y-1y1 ,U1P1x1TU U0UyU QyP,1, 1y11y ^y1Q0 101T1y Uxy-0 P]x,1 UU10y 1uU-QU- U-,M- y0]y]y -TU1Q Ux,Ux-yx yHTy] ]UTUUyU y,PUU 0y,pU yUy,U y1yUy $]y,M,LU PUP1xUyTxU x]y,UU ]yUyTy yU]UU ,-1,- ,y1y-1T 11y1,y pUy,y Uy1U]U Uy1zU QTUUyyx-,y y1(,y 0PU,y1P y1PU1y1(U y1yy1PyUy ,-P)yUy UP1x1y]y ,U,yU Uy1xy- TUTUY UyUU-x1x t]-U11 1PTyU ,y-U-x1 -PUTyU 1TU,] UU1,9- ]yUTP y1P]y-1x -UTUUP-U MT1-T 910U1y, Ty1u0y 0y-UT,0 QTUUPUyUUy 0-1y0y 1xyT- QTx,y yTy}, UT-y, -0UU], P1P1-, T,t]U Tt,L,( 1X1y11 TttPL xUxU0 UQU$1 U,0Q9 0y,TU 11x11 y01TQ,1 UTU1,10-1x Tyy,1UT1y ,1xU-0U 1y11T ,-01, ,9y0P 11t1t y0-9P 1P1xY 1,1x1T ,yTxT0 T-xUU 0u1PT UUT1, -,Ty01 ]Ty,p yUTU0 -y]PU 1\TUT1 ,yU-0U U0U0Z xyT,] U8PT]xy yyTxx PPxT1 ,Q,y0U 1,11U UyUy] UU0U5TU ,UU10y ]Ux0xU ,1P,-U 1U,]y -0U10y T1x1P x,,T1P 11U]U1T -TUP1Y( y01x- bU]U1 U0U,P 1x-U0 1,-TUT 0yUT1 TP]P0 1y10, UxT-0 ,1,y0y U9]PU 1U1x1 ,y0PU U1|]P $P,yb^] 9]$]1 11Ty- 1\Q\t ,11x1 ,UUTQUU9 9,PtT Ux-,yT Y0TUyP] yy0P) 1^]$1y Px$91 U0U,: $Q-1y 1^0y11 $PU^: 11tLT UyU$U UT$Py]T y1Qy4 P1U0P1 YU8y0y 1TyT} 11x1P UyUU,- UT-]1- -T-x1 yyUx-yT110 U]y1U y1U]9 xUU,(0Q0 y11T11 y]y,,1 y0y]U y5x]y U-U]u 0],U01yUTy 1P0T0 11T-U U,y10 1]yQ9 U11U1- 1U1y11 _:^^;^:^ ^:;^:: ::^^_^: :Z^^_ ^;^^_: :^;:: ^_^^_ :^;:^ ::^::^ ^:^:^; ;^::^^_: :_:^_ _^_^: :^:^:^;:^ ::^:2 ^:^3^:_:: :^::^::^ 2::^:: :^::;^:^:^ ::^;:^ :;^:V::^ ^::V:c:^:^ :^:V:^ ::V:^: :_::^::2 2^::^:^::^ :_^_> z>^:; :^;^; ^:_:^::_ ^::_:^;:^ :^:^:V :_^;^: 2^_^^_: :^;^Z:^:^ :^:_:^2 :^2^^ ^:^:3 _^^b_ _:^:: :Z^:^;:^: ^:^::^: : _^> :^:_:_^ :_^b; : :^_ ^:^:_:_ ^_^:;^: ^:^;^:: ;:^::V:^:: ^^V::^;^ ^:^::^:: ::^::^2^ :^^_^ :_^b; :;^_^: ^^b^_^ :_b^:_ ^^:^; :^;:^ :^:W:^:: ^:V:^:^;^ _::V::^2:^ : ^_: _>_: : :_^^: ;^;:_:^ :;^;^^; ^;:^: :_:^:2^::^ ^:V:_ _:^:^:^: :;^:^; ^^:^;: :_:^: ^:^:_ :^^_^ :;^:^; ^^_:: ::^;^ ^;^2^ :^:2:^2:^ ;^:^:V ^:2^: :^;V:^2: V::2^:V:^: ;^_^: :_:^;:^;^ :^;::^; ::^:_:^:: ^:;^:^: _:^:^;V :^:^^: :_:^_: _^^:: : ^_^;^ :;^;:^ _::^::_:^ ;^::_:_ ::;^::^: _:^:2 :^:;^2: ^_^^; ::_:^^ ^:;^: ;^^_: :^:;^_ :^;^; :_::_::_: :_^^:: ^;^:^::_:: :^:_2: ;:_:: ;^:^;^:^; :_:^_^Z:;^ :^_^: _^;^: :^^_^::^ :;^;^ :^::^:^ 6:^V::^: ^::^:^;2 :_2:^: ^::^:V :;^:: ^:^_:^: _^:^^ :^:^:^ ::^:^^_:^ ;^^_^ _:;:^;:^:^ ::^:;^ :^_^:^: ::^;^; :_:^:; ^:^::^: V::^: :^:2^:V: ::^;^:;^ ^_::^:;^:^ ^:;^^: :_:^::_::^ :^:_^ ;:_:^ ::_::^; _:^:_ ^:_:^::_: ^::^; ^2:^;:^2 :_::^ ;:^::^:^:: _:;^;^: ^:_:: ::^;:^ ;::_^: :^;^_: ^:2;2^:^:: ::^:^;: V:^::_ _:^::^; :^:^;^_^ ::_::_ ^::;:_: :^;^;: :;^;:: _:_::^ ^:^;^;: ^::_:: ^::^:: _:^_^ :^:^: 2^^_:^ ;^;^_ ^:;^;^::_: :^::; :^;^::^^: ^:^:^;^ ^2^:^: ::^; ^_:2^:_ 22^;:; ^:^;^ ;::_: :V:^:: ;::_:^ ^_^^:_ ^::^;^;^ _:^:_:^ ;^;^: ^:2^;: ::V:^ ^:^:V:^:;: ^:_:^:: ^:^2;^::^; ::^;: ::V;:^ :_:_:^2:: 2::^2 :^:^; ::_::;:^ :Z^:^ ^:_::V: ^2::V:V ;^;:V: ^:^:V: 2^::^2 ::2_:^: ;^::_ ^::2_ ^^:^^:;^:^ 2^;:: ^:^;: 2:^:_: ::^::2^::^ ^2_::^ ^;:^2:_:^ ;^::^ ::V:^ ^:_:^ ^::^2 Yb^2:^: _:^:^:V:_ _:2^;: :_::_::^:V :^;:^ ^:^:;^:; _::^2 ^;:^Z: _2:^::^:_: :^;^2 :^^2_ ^2^:^V _:^2^: ^;::^: :^;^2: _:^;^:;V ^:^;:V:;^ 2:^;:^;^ ^:^_^ :^:^:^::_: ^:_2^ V:^2^:; ^ZV::V:; ^::_2 :^Z^:: _::^: :^:V: ^:^^3 ;:^:^: ^_:^;:^:;: :;^:^ :_:V::^ :_:_: ^:;^:W::^ :2:V2^ ^:2^2:V :^;:^: Ub^:;^ :V:^:^: :^:^; :_:2^;:V 2_2^^ V::^: ;^::^:^:2_ :V:_2 V::^:^ :_::^: ;^::^ ^:2:^:^2 _::^: ^::_2:V:V V:^::^ :^:2: ^2::^ p186-5 ftsTitleOverride Ecosystems: Extreme (page 5) ftsTitle Polar bears on the winter tundra of northern Canada. The polar bear's adaptations to its environment include thick fur, camouflage coloration, and hairy soles to help its paws grip on the ice. Ecosystems: Extreme (5 of 5) Polar or high-latitude ecosystems Beyond the Arctic and Antarctic Circles the main limiting factors are those of the long winter darkness and the perennially low temperatures. For up to six months of the year darkness prevails, temperatures remain below 0 deg C (32 deg F), snow covers the surface, and permafrost cracks open the ground. Life in these circumstances is severely restricted - but is still possible. Summers are short (in some cases only 8 weeks) but long days allow temperatures to reach 10 deg C (50 deg F). The ground thaws to a sticky mass, insects abound and plant life becomes active. Inconspicuous mosses and lichens cover the ground along with sedges, grasses and flowering plants. In some areas tiny trees (willow and aspen) grow horizontally to escape the cold winds. This is the area of the tundra. Few animals remain in the tundra during the long winter. Those that do must develop thick insulating coats of fur or feathers. The musk ox of North America and Greenland has a double layer of hair, as does the arctic fox, while resident birds such as the ptarmigan have a special layer of insulating feathers. Thus equipped, these animals can survive temperatures as low as -50 deg C (-58 deg F). In some animals the color of the coat also changes from a summer brown to a protective winter white. Hibernation is not common amongst the animal inhabitants - the conditions are probably too severe to make such an adaptation a reliable form of survival. Small rodents such as lemmings, shrews and voles burrow under the snow and remain active all winter. Tunnels and nests insulated with grass and warmed by the animals' bodies often provide temperatures of 10 deg C (50 deg F) when external conditions are below freezing. Food is obtained from eating plant roots and stems. By far the greatest means of survival is for animals to migrate to less hostile areas, returning in the spring or early summer. Mobility and navigation skills are thus essential features. Birds such as ducks, geese and swans are particularly successful migrants. To save essential time, pairing occurs before they arrive at the summer breeding grounds and old nest sites are reused. Food is abundant in the short but favorable summer, although the animals must be prepared to change their food supply to coincide with whatever is available - insects, mollusks, worms, and young plant shoots. Because life is so marginal in the extreme ecosystems, they are highly vulnerable to changes wrought by humans. Hunters, mineral prospectors and tourists all take their toll. The extreme ecosystems will never provide us with much food, but they are often rich in minerals and are exploited by the developed nations. These remote areas represent the last remaining under-utilized land on this planet - they are the last true wildernesses. * MOUNTAINS * ICE * DESERTS * CLIMATIC AND VEGETATION REGIONS * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * THE BIOSPHERE Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture T,,P(t,PT 5pTTx,xT ,Q0xPt 0TTx,xTx (x,xPU TPLt, 10P0U,LTy\x1 T,0xyx, ,,,p,t Px,LP T1Tx0 PTxTx,y ,(U0P ,T0Q0 P,x,tx tTUTtU ^>:b:: ---1- 111-1 yUU9U :]1Z^ 1-19U1V] 11-1U1 ]yU1UU ,yTy\ y]11y 1UU]1y 1]UUy 111y11]U1 y1^Ux 1UU2]U U191U1 U119UUy 11U1U1] 99U1U]] 1U1Y1U] U111U 1119V]11U11U Zy1]9 9y1Y1 11111U111U1U91U] 1-0U-111 1U1U11T1 11Q1U11U1 11U911 1U9U1 1911U11 11-11- U1-1- 111U0 -11-1U11U 1911U U9]1U1 1U11U1 ]^1U] 1U1-1- 11111 1]0U111 T1-U0 011U, U11--1 U1T11U9U1 U1T-0-1,U --11- U1^25 UUy111U -1]1U0 Q0y10U11U11 y1Uy1T -11111- 19-111U 1U11U1U1UU 111111 1111U1U19U 1U1-11- 111U1 111111 U11111 -11111U1 U11U1 yUUUU 11U111 2T1]1 11U11 1U11U11UY1U111 1111T 1111]11 1-1U111 U11U1 91:U1 1U111 U1191 111U- 1U1]U9 U111U1 1UY11 -1111 11111 1U0-0 -111--1 -1-T-111T11UT UU]x1 Ty1T9T111y10 P1--0 -11-1U 1U1Uy 1y111U0 01-U1U]U 9U111-1U11101 10U1U9]1 11UY1 U1101 19191111911y1U1 1T11y1 911U1 11U1111 1UUUU1UUy1U y1U11 1U1U1 Uy1U1x1T U101-1U 011U1 11U0111- T1118 11111 -111- 1T111U0UU1UU1111 111U1 U11011U1111UU110 1y111U T11111- U11]11 11119y UU9V1 11,11- 11U1U U10111- 1--1-1U1 U1U1U1 U1T11V] UTy1U11 ,U0Q0Ux0, U]U1U10U :YYy110 11U01 019]^] 09]]xy T1TUy8U]Py0U0QTP 010^] ,t1xQxMP1yyxy UTUyUx :>:^>:f 1yTU] UU1U1y 0U0U101-1T11 1T1--1-111-1P ]y]y1xUT1yTy Uy0y,T 1UUU1 U11]1 yTUUP1y,1y1TUxy0QTUUT1y0-xUyP1xQTUTQy1yyTU1 1TUy1x1yU1yT-P y11yYUU-U0111U11U L,P,y Lt,P, Tx,$P, PPpTTPx ,(,PP ]yUyb Pt,Pt Tx0xPtTxTx1 xTTPp, 0,xPxTP$, xTx0U TxTyT \tLxxUxUx UT1Px yxTytT UxTxT TyxTxxTtxUxxyT x1x1xTxy1TPxTxy 0x0xTxTyxTxTyTTPT -xTTTxTxTP Txx,xPT00u01P0x TPx,TPxTP,TTPTt,xt,tx,,TP0x,T,PPTT,0t0TUxTUT0,TPx0xTT110xxTxx0Ux,PTx,x,L,T,Ux0xx,0T-TTxTxy1xTyx 0x1xT 0,x0y\T TxUxyT yTyxTxyxUx1Tx UPTUxUxTxUxT 100501 0011101 11T01TU01UxUTY 1U0109U\UT 11UU01 UxT01 01x10- 101T0 0U000 0x0-0 1xU0y0,xTP0UT1T11TUT p188-1 ftsTitleOverride Arable Farming (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Arable Farming (1 of 3) Arable farming is the practice of cultivating land to produce crops for human or animal consumption. Horticulture, the growing of fruit and vegetables, is regarded as a specialized branch of arable agriculture. Some crops are grown for purposes other than food: for example, cotton and jute are turned into fabrics, cooking oil is extracted from maize and sunflowers, esparto grass is used in the manufacture of paper and rope, and tobacco is used for smoking materials. Although there are about 80000 edible plants, just four plants (rice, wheat, maize and potatoes) make up more of the world's total food production than all the others combined. Land used for arable farming is usually cultivated by plowing (or often by digging in the Third World). Seed or small plants are then planted in the prepared soil. In the developed world, the crop is usually fertilized and sprayed with a variety of chemicals in order to ensure rapid and healthy growth. In Third World countries less reliance is placed on these additives and more attention is given by the farmer and his family to weeding, hoeing and selective spraying to control pests after they have appeared. The geographical limits The geographic boundaries of arable farming are controlled by soil, relief and climate. Soils must be fertile, stone free and well drained. Generally, slope should not exceed about 15 from the horizontal in order to minimize soil erosion and prevent the overturning of tractors. However, the building of terraces can enable steeper slopes to be cultivated. At temperate latitudes only land near sea level is suitable for arable farming. Above about 200 m (660 ft) the growing season becomes too short and night-time frosts can damage crops. However, in lower latitudes, arable agriculture is successfully practiced on high plateau up to 2000 m (6600 ft) above sea level, while in the tropical Andes potatoes are cultivated at 4300 m (14100 ft). Apart from temperature, availability of moisture is of critical importance. Rainfall should be evenly distributed through the growing season, although nowadays any deficiency can often be offset by irrigation. The development of arable farming Arable agriculture first emerged in the Middle East in the period 9000-7000 bc, immediately following a worldwide improvement in climate after the last Ice Age. The crops grown were primitive forms of einkorn (a variety of wheat) and barley. Evidence of agricultural development in many of the fertile river valleys of the Far East, India and the Nile Valley, and from Central and South America, have also been discovered, all dating from between 6000 and 4000 bc. When the crops grown at these sites are listed they appear remarkably similar to our present crops (rice, oats, beans, peas, maize, cassava, etc.). Gradually, a subsistence arable agriculture was developed in which at least enough crops for survival were produced, using human labor perhaps supplemented by draught animals. At best there would be some crops left over to barter, or to put aside for hard times. Two types of subsistence farming could be found, both of which are still practiced in the Third World. The first was labor intensive, in which one crop was continually produced (monoculture) - for example, rice in the Far East. The second was land intensive, in which a number of crops were produced (polyculture) from a small area of land until soil fertility became exhausted and a new area of land was developed. A typical example of this is the slash-and-burn agriculture found within the tropics. In the mid-latitudes neither of these farming types was possible. Instead, during the Middle Ages, small strips of land were cultivated to the point of soil exhaustion. The need to rotate crops and to add manure was poorly understood. Gradually, during the course of the 18th century, the first Agricultural Revolution occurred in Europe. Land was periodically rested (left fallow) and crops rotated between two, and later three and four fields. A four-field system would typically have involved a grain crop (oats, barley or wheat), followed by a root crop (turnip or potato), followed by a different grain crop, followed by a fallow year of grass or clover (the latter helping to restore nitrogen to the soil). The alternation of crops helps to maintain the fertility of the soil, and to prevent the build-up of pests and diseases specific to a particular crop. The increased productivity that resulted from rotation, and from improvements in techniques such as plowing and sowing, enabled many farmers to grow a large proportion of their produce as cash crops, i.e. crops that can be sold at a profit. These surpluses were used to feed the increasing urban populations. * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * LIVESTOCK FARMING * THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 22V22 808080808 2-1-25 0--1" 80808( -1-1- p188-2 ftsTitleOverride Arable Farming (page 2) ftsTitle Pesticide spraying is extensively used to control pests in arable farming, particularly in the West. Farmers claim pesticides are necessary to maintain high levels of productivity, but there are concerns about their effect on the surrounding environment. Arable Farming (2 of 3) Modern arable farming In the early 1900s the mechanization of farming began to speed up, first in America, later in Europe. Petrol-driven tractors hauled bigger plows, and this allowed larger areas to be cultivated. From 1918 the number of people employed in agriculture began to fall. In the 1930s the first large-scale use of chemical products began. These included artificial fertilizers rich in nitrogen, phosphate and potash, together with fungicides, insecticides and herbicides to control molds, insect pests and weeds respectively. There were dramatic increases in productivity levels, although wider environmental problems have sometimes resulted. Environmental problems have also arisen from the destruction of hedges, felling of trees and drainage of boggy areas, all of which leaves a landscape open to the ravages of wind and water erosion. By the 1960s plant geneticists were able to breed crops for specific environments, heralding the so-called 'Green Revolution'. By the 1970s biochemists were able to recombine the genetic structure of plants to produce new hybrid crop varieties with greater yields and increased disease resistance. In the 1980s the cloning of plants allowed the mass production of young plants that all had identical properties: characteristics such as height, fruit size, leaf size and rate of maturing can all be made very similar within a crop produced from cloned stock. As a result, harvesting costs have been reduced and yield increased. Other changes have also occurred in arable agriculture. High capital investment is necessary to buy fertilizers, pesticides and machinery, with the result that large-scale specialization has been a feature of agriculture in the developed world, with many family farms being brought into corporate ownership. Agriculture has become big business - agribusiness. * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * LIVESTOCK FARMING * THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 109]9 8]a]- Ta\8T1 d\8\9T ,99]0U 0`e]9 9\9T98 -08\9 \]\]] 0]88]9 8T19] ]81Ta0\Td T1]919 Ua9\9]8] ]8]eT \09\8\ T99U` 1T9]0 80]8]1 U`\8]9 U0]88] 1\180 `]0U09U e0\]8 0]8999 \0T8\8U091\ `]80e 8\81\ 88\90 `U0]` 9T9T0 `U9\a 189\1 9]9T0\ 8]aeT8 ]89\1 U008U 89]8]89] ]9T99 8]\]9\ U<\8T 1\a]T0 9a9]9 9a8a9 ]9T90 9\a\a]9 `8Ta\ 9\9T9\ a\a]8] `\98] \99<\8i 9\9\1 U8]9< ]89\9 ]9a]9 T1\=U U88]0 ]ie8]]8\8 9\89T 8]9a9 9]<Aa a]=e9 ]8=9\9 =e`\ad ]809\ =d9\= a]8a=\ 98=989\ 8]=\9 \9\9=a9T ]8`89\a \=]8] 9]18] 89]8] 9<]91 \9=e` =]=1\ 9@]8] 999a] 88`89 \ad1a]1 98]9a ad9]< ]89a] 8\=daa `ea\8 a9\<h 8=]=A e`9\9 ]8909T 8]0]9\9 \a\98 9`]9=] \=]8aeU\ 0U18]8 889\1 8]8]0 8]89\ ]91]1 ]=\9\ 1\9hae T9=a]8 ]`\0T1 1T-U1b^1U1-1- M-,-L ]<9T9= ),Q(P9 ae9=] 9]ja9 \9e89 U<]89 U898a a`]8a ]9`ae ]0U8] T-0U0U1 U019P d\90\8] \=]9] 1U90U9 10U0U 1\1]01U1T1T1T UyTyTyTyx] T1181 910U19 ]T1T1T1] M,yxyyy-y1Q1Q)]- U1181U11]9]1U 11T9\9 9]]89a9\ U10U0U 1U01]1U9T11T18U1]8U1U] U0-U, )0-1-0 1U09U11\1]091U8]9 Q0yU, 1-1,U1 1T99U09U901]]\9 -UyTUyT U0U0y0 09]18 10U8U090]9]8 yUyyUU ]1U99]9 U011T 98U9U U11\98]]9\9]8 ]i\i8 U8U0]010 ]91T9 b]1]9U0U0 -09\9]]]a] ,U81T10 ]U91T1 0]]U0 UUT1T1U0 9U9\1T9]]\1T 8=]89 9]]\] U`9\9 ]aea\ U998]9 T1T1U0 e]8]010U98U0 \y0]10 1T1T1 ]8=]8 \]9]0U] TT1T1U U01U9T1 \8a@a U0U\y0U1 1T]T]x ]8a9] 0]]a] 8\8<]9e 1\9U= e9]=] 0U9\9 P-0,U0 T=\<]a 1]0]a ae]8\8 a\1811 0U1]9 TeU@9 91101U \88`e\ ]9\a]a T9T0U k b9] T1T10T U1\99 11T1y U19\a 0]118]0]\] 0]0U0 0U90]T]U8 \0\9\ U1U8]98 1U18U019\1] aP19U1 8]09]1 8]]]9 U80U1T10]91U0]0]\ U9U1]]]99 ]8]9]9 ]1]\]09\19 9aea0 1\99\a U011\ 8\a]8 -81]9\U9 a8]9ae yUP,P ,(0xT 9]9]8 0U0U\ \198] ]]T91T1 1T10U\ 8191T 0918U T1T1] T11TU ]1T98 T1U0U T18U8U90]\ ]`\99 U1T1x] =]0U0191 0U019]\ 0U010U 1T1x] 1\99\9 919]0U 1T1\9]89]8] U09`a 0]89a ]9]8] e901]1 ]-010] 01]]T]\ 18]8]] a\1]1 U0U8]9]8]8 ]ad98 0U0U\ =9\9<]a]8 T1]99 9]010U ]90U9 9-1]Aa9 \]8]9 1\90]` 1U01T1T9]0]9 9U01U U98U9 \98]a \901U81 8]\]8 1T10U01T i99]1T9-1T 09U8U] U0U0U U90]a `9\9]8 T1T1T9]] ]]0U19T9\a 11T110 a\9]8 9]aea -1\11 U`\<\<A]9 99T111]a T08\0T1 0U8]]]\ 8]989\9<]a ]T`]a\ ]<9\a a]8U1]a]898 10U080T18T1\ ]8]99 ]99\9 9]8]]a9 U01T1TUT]x] ]8U89= T9T189\9 81]89`e 010T9U U,0U1T10U0 1]1U8a `UA=\ 0U1]\ U0001T1T 1\1U\ T9\9`e 1]0]8]\] e\]`e 1T1T1U0]0 \1\998 T101T101x9x] T1]]]11]11 P1T1T1T1T1TU ]90]01\U U010U011 09U\11T1 U0U1T1 P10U,U0T0U0x1 U0U\9U8U] 1T9Te 8]81\9T 0T1T0U0 U81U010 T9\]9\91 T9T18] U0T1T01xU0y0T109- T]T1]8U0T1 9=Ua] 10U10UU\1T10U9T ]T11U111 ]8U8U1 T10T1T1 U@9T8 U01\10 98]10 P1T10U0 0U01T9\ 10U991U0T0y0U0 01T101T10\1 ]8U0U00 1\a]8 U0Q0U00U0U1\ 90]1\ (1\9T P10U0U0 ]T1]8 9]18]1 1\901\9\ T-T1T1P T1\1\8 1T1Ue \9\9]1\ eU0=99] U0U0T T-T01 ]00\1 Ta\18 a818\` U=T1T1 a]8]` 9\8]9 ]\=\1U 01T]]0 UT1P1T T0],U0U\9 \1]0]9 0T9P8U01U Ua]0]] ]8=\98 U11T0 \aU89 ]89a8 8\8a8 U11T] 0T9T0 a]89\= ]0110U0 1T10UT1 U810T1 TU80T aU0U0y\ 08a`\ 8]1\] y\U0910 0]`e` 0T1T9\ 980\a \\1\1 -0180]] 0T09T] =\9a] U9T90 0]8]9 8T9T] U0]01 \0]89 U8U1]\ ]\\]\18 (10P] 8]`]\T] U0U00 0U8U1 U0T1T U18T] U0U0U8 0\9T1 \1T09T ]0U090 ]8U1T] ]0]01Te]0 T0U\09 `\\08 01T18U\]T 1T0U8U T100U89T90U 11T8T1 11U01 T1U0U \]U\]]\1] 9T91]\U0 9T99T9\09T1U 101\1T] 0U09\ (T9\1 1T0U10U09T] 1`]0919T0T8U 09T90 U\U\1U9 9T1U0U10U\ 0U9]\ 9]0]8]0]1 9T0]0 9T9]09\]01T1T U10U9U \]\1\] ]]0U0 dU]]\ `]1]099U8 81\19 10U1U T0]9T01 -0U090U] 1\]]\]98]09 8U89y8 U1e]8 8U8U0 1\1U9\8]\] 8]9T9 ]]1\11\1\1]\U10U09U8U8 ]]]09] 8]9]0 01]01]0 9T10U1101 1U0U0U1 11\11 9T9U8] U09\9 9\U\] \]0U9T1]81U8]0 T11\]U\ U01]a 8y9T9]\ ]\]x9 U981T 909T9U 8T]T] T1T10U01\] 0]U0U0 U9\]\1 99]81\9\9 18]09]90]]U0]9 U8U91 T18U1 -T10U U1T1U10]1 \U]T]T]8 ]U]U0 ]91\911\9T99 ]\]]] ]1U9T] 89]9T1]0990]] 9U\9] 8]14U98U 1T90-0U 1\10U00 0U90U8 81]0]]\U9T10U8U] UfU0]U01U0]]\9]0U99]0U98U09 9T9\\ 9]99]] \]]T1T1 U1\9U81 \1T98 ]898]8 90U11T19 U1T11T-0 1T1U0 aU\\] 9U01]0]]T18U8y] U01U0]10]01 9U10U01U0 109]09 \1U099T90 ]U89U89]]]10U11\1] 0U,1Te 10]1T ]T1]0 1\]\U9U00 9\8\9 T1]0U81T T1U89U0U1T1U0 99\9U U19]0U909UaU01U09Q0]19]8] 819T1U9T1109 0]9]1U191T 1T10U1 1U0U0 0UeT98U1T U0U\U 0U01T1T1 10U1T1U0T0 1x1y0y0 0U1T1 ]891T1T1]\ 1T]T1U09T1U 101\1 ]1U01 \001U01T11T1U 0-0-0U01 0U10U- 8U101U010U010U000y011UT 0]1x1U0 1TU]T\ 1T1T1T10 a]88T9 18U10U0U U1T91T10 0U89T9U Ta\1U0]0 U1T1]1]0U0 1T1U0U1T1U0U1T1U0U1T0T]U0U]T] \]U\] p188-3 ftsTitleOverride Arable Farming (page 3) ftsTitle Hydroponics is a technique for growing fruit and vegetables in gravel or polythene, through which water containing dissolved inorganic salts is pumped. This gives the plants all the nutrients they need. In this purpose-built hydroponics building in the far northwest of Scotland, such plants as strawberries, sweet corn, vines and bananas can be grown. Arable Farming (3 of 3) MAIN FOOD CROPS OF THE WORLD WHEAT Distribution: non-tropical regions throughout the world, extending to about latitude 60 N and 50 Uses: flour for bread-making and baking. Annual production: 551 million tons. Wheat can hybridize with ease, not only between different cultivated varieties but also with grasses. This gives it its great potential as an agricultural species, and has resulted in a great many varieties. There are two main groups of modern wheat. Spring wheat is sown in March and harvested in September (in the northern hemisphere), and is usually found in higher-latitude locations such as Canada and the USSR. It produces a hard grain well suited to bread making. Winter wheat is slower growing and less tolerant of winter cold. It is planted in September and harvested the following July (in the northern hemisphere). It is a softer grain more useful for general baking. Modern cultivation methods rely on hybrid seed and inorganic fertilizers to boost the yield. Distribution: any region where growing-season temperatures exceed 21 C (70 F) and irrigation is possible. Uses: boiled as a staple food, and milled to rice flour. Annual production: 520 million tons. More than half the world's population depends on rice for sustenance, mainly in Asia and in Central and South America. Only 2% of annual rice production enters the international commodities market. Most rice in Asia is of the 'paddy' variety, that is, grown in standing water until the time of harvest. Elsewhere, 'upland rice' is grown, which relies on abundant rainfall. Paddy rice gives the highest yields, and up to three crops per year can be obtained. Traditionally, rice has demanded intensive labor, although mechanization of some of the cultivation stages has now become possible. Genetic improvements since 1962 have resulted in a 700% improvement in yield. MAIZE (CORN) Distribution: originally from the Americas but introduced to Europe in 1492 and now extensively grown in all tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions. Uses: consumed by humans in the form of maize flour and breakfast cereals, and as a vegetable ('sweet corn'). Milled for animal feed, and used as a source of oils, vitamins and industrial starch. Also fermented for maize beer. Annual production: 479 million tons. Maize is unique in that it produces distinctive 'cobs' each made up of several hundred grains. Under optimum growth conditions maize is three times as productive as wheat. Maize flour is ideal for cake making, pancakes and unleavened bread. When fed to pigs and cattle it can result in spectacular increases in meat tissue. Experiments have shown it to be ideally suited for the production of industrial alcohol, and the plant residue can be decomposed to produce methane gas (biofuel). POTATOES Distribution: temperate and high latitudes throughout the world. Uses: as a vegetable for humans. Annual production: 261 million tons. The potato originated in the mountains of the northern Andes of South America. It was brought to Europe at the end of the 16th century, doing particularly well in the cool, damp conditions of Western Europe. The potato is particularly rich in carbohydrate and also supplies protein, iron, vitamins B and C, as well as 50% of phosphorus and 10% of calcium requirements. The potato is vulnerable to diseases such as the dreaded potato blight, which decimated the Irish potato crop in the 1840s. The potential of the potato has hardly been realized. Their natural variety makes them ideal subjects for genetic engineering, and new varieties have already been developed for tropical latitudes - potentially revolutionizing the diets of many Third World populations. BARLEY Distribution: northern hemisphere mid-latitudes. Uses: animal feedstock. In its 'malted' (germinated) form it is used in the manufacture of beer and whisky. Annual production: 169 million tons. Barley is the fourth most important cereal in terms of world production. Its use as a foodstuff is almost completely confined to animal feed. CASSAVA Distribution: originally the tropics of the New World, but now more extensive in Africa. Uses: fried, roasted, boiled, sun-dried or fermented for human consumption. Annual production: 154 million tons. Cassava is a versatile crop, and will tolerate drought conditions. Some species contain the poisonous substance hydrogen cyanide, and this must be carefully removed before eating. It contains virtually no protein (at best 1%) and people who eat mainly cassava develop kwashior-kor, a protein-deficiency disease characterized by swollen stomachs). SWEET POTATOES Distribution: in the tropics, and increasingly in temperate latitudes. Uses: as a staple food and also as a flavorsome vegetable. Annual production: 126 million tons. Originally confined to the tropics of South America, the sweet potato accompanied the Portuguese and Spanish voyagers of the 16th century. The swollen root is rich in starch, sugar, iron, calcium and a Vitamin A substitute. It is unusual amongst crops in that it is always grown from cuttings (rarely if ever from seed). PULSES (PEAS AND BEANS) Distribution: worldwide. Uses: oils for human and industrial use and increasingly as alternative sources of high-quality protein in meat-free diets. Extracts from pulses are used in putty, paint, waterproofing materials and leather dressings. Annual production: c. 110 million tons. The most important pulse today is the soybean, and now 40% of world soybean output comes from the USA. The bean produces valuable oil, and the residue is fed to animals. OATS AND RYE Distribution: cool, damp climates of the higher latitudes. Uses: mainly as cattle and horse feed, but oats are used for porridge and rye as a specialist bread flour. Annual production: 61 million tons. These two cereals are of lesser importance than formerly, and now account for only about 5% of the world's cereal production. The advantages of both are that they can grow in poor soils in poor climates. They are also extremely nutritious, with a higher fat content than most cereals and an excellent grade of dietary fiber. * PLANT PHYSIOLOGY * FLOWERING PLANTS * LIVESTOCK FARMING * THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER * THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture T0T00T0 xx1xUx UTUTT TyTU0y0y01 x0U0T1TUP 1xQ0yP0,11 xUTy01 y00y0y0x1T TUTU,UTTyT UTUTT1P0x1 TU0Tx TTyxUxx ]TxTTUTyTU x1TUTUTUT U0yx1xUTUT y0y010- TUTUT \xTT]Ty x\UTTUTUTU 00y0x1T 11UT1-xUT1 1yTUT yTT11x1 y1y,xU Ux1xTxUTTU -10011 x0y\1xy0 1x1t]x]T U0x1Ty9x1 y\yT]x] x}1-y1- x1xUx]x]xy 9x1xyT yTx1xTTx1 UTyTyT\yUy -10x 11811 U\U\xy\y\y UT]x1\x 1y\y11] 11y11UUT yUx0y 0y01T1y0T0 0-\,0 xTxUTT UTTUxU x1x0x1x Y8U9u ,0t(P1 x1T1U0y 0Ux1x1TU0y 0yx1x]TTy8 xUxUTyT 0y8y\ ]xx]T xUTTUTU]x Ty]xUxQ00 ,U1xyTUTy 0x1xU xy1xUxT ]]TUTy8y xx8y]x x9y0y Tx,y0 9U90U T]U18 TUU\UT eaT9T P-0U0 T1TU0x 1x8x1 -TUT]] U0]1y9xa xUUTy0 0yxUx-xUT UT1x1 xxUxU U01P0T00 0u00U 0y,UT TUy8T1Ty8 y8U]T8y1 1T0PU y0y0T UTTU0y0TUx 1xUTT U00UU U]T1T 09x9Yy0 P01,PUyT TUy0y,y0u, y0xx0x0y,T UPTQT0yTxU P1T91T0U,y 0T1x1x9TT y,1P1x10U0 1TUT]U\ y0T0U01x U,x0t0 01T0P0,T0P 10P,, Ty]xUx1x 0y,TU0y1T1 TTy0TUTTy U\]U]x T1TU1 Qx-t1 0P,U0x1x 1xy0x1yxx1 x1xUT, ,0Q(0 0$T0,T8 ]y\M, UTT0T01x,U TUTU0PT,0 T1U81x1 xUTTyTyx0 Tyx]y x1x1x9x10y 1xTUT] T\]T88 91T1109T0U ]T-T9U]U 0xUx1TQTt- T1]T1T ,U]Ta T11T10y0UT TxUx1xx `0yU0T8 U0y0P Ty0T0TTU0x 0x0Ty0T1x] UTTU\U1 8yx]e x1,,T0 U]U8y0U1 xTy0T 0P1PUTTUT 0Pa]]x1 01TUP1 TT-x0x100U 0UPUxUUTP T0QTyT1TT L00u, TQx1x, TuQI, TUU0yT\ ]TU\TP ,UTUTU ]TTy9x10U 8Ubx9 0P,,M .]-U`9 y1U00 \]U8] -0]10 -$QTP1 U,P)T 8]0P\ x008, 0U,Q0 01T1T1]T upy1, 9,10\ T,0T0UT \<88Q 8]81yT0 Ux1U\0y 1TU1y 1\U1U UY8y0 ]]y8Ua\ tPPM\ UT]T0T TP11x $`t0y 81P10]\ 1t0xx0 ,$],P 01x]T0] ]0U0] 0PTx\ U-]1U 1tU]T 0T0yx qU0-x T,]]U Q10-x U81T, $yx1x 1T]T] ]00x0 -01xP] ]x9y] 1T-x1T9 yUPHP T0y0P10 ]8TU\ x1T9T1 ]10,]\ U0P1TTx0 My8Q0 1x99TUx8y\ U,pTT Q(U\y \1TUT ]\]U] P1TUx ]TPx] 8U]TU \UT]8 0x9x\U P0T18 ]]T]0y\U\ U9y8y\1 T]x9x18y9x P01x] -]P0P0 1TT]\ ]]\U8U8 U0]0]UT] ]T]y8 0xx9T 9x9U\ x1T1TTU\U1 ]0,Q8 0PTt0 ]]8]\U UTy0P(TT P,xU]0U \T1T19TP]T \-T1T\ b ^ 1T1T1TTU\ ^c^^b^ 01T9T 1\1T\U8 T,L0x 0y8TU ]TU\y 6 : ^ : 1T0]01T10 TTUU\ P0P9T 18U0UTU y0Ux]0U0 ^;^_b b_b ^_ UT1T10] ]1\]1 T10U0U 0U]0U\ 9$y00 UT5tT x0T101x0U0 10]x- t01TU b_b^> 9U0T\U9T10 U00x1\ 1T8U0, yx90]\ ^: >C T]T1T] : b^^ > : : ?b^ P0x,1T]T x181x 0U,x1T0y0 ]0U01T ^;^ > :_> xPP9P10 0TU8y0U1T 01T010y0U0 UT18U0,TT : ? : : :b ^c^c^_b > T0T,1T1]\ 0T01T T1\,9x10 > ; b ^ b 1T0U\xy80U 10y1T1TT \U00U01T1 txlP9 c^ b_b_c _^_ ^ :^: \U0T0 0TUTUTUTy0 ]x-T] ^ ^^ :^ : ^_> :cbf : c^c^Z_ T,T,P10, 01T190 y1T0T >^? ?^ >_^ TPTxUT T]0x1TUT T1X-0 : :>; T00y8U,0T ?^_ :b^ aQ]U,x, 0U\U0 1T1T0 P]Tx9\8 ^^ > b^ : :c::c 0x1T00 ^^b : _^ _b c: : ^c:^:^cc UT1T]TU\1T > ;^ ? f_^ ? ; >_:^ ^ \TUU0U1 U01T9xU 0P,$t :c^_ :T]]Tt ]TU\10y] xU0y0X ^^_ C^; : :> : ?^; ^:_ ^_b_^b _^ ^ ^^ -\UUy PT0U0 b^ b bcf : > : : : y]T9U U89TU$ ^ b > _b b: : ^;? :^;: : :_^?^^ : :^ : ^ ^_^?: :^ 8\x0]T : ^? ^:^;^? y0tPT ; :^ U,]TU0 :> :;c ?f;Z; uUy-tMu ;bb_^ :^ : b 6 :^ xx0-0 >:_ ^ ;^ ;b^;:^ T1]0T-8 : >^2: : : b_b: ^:_ : c : ^ b^ >^;^ :;: : : 01T0t8y8 : >_: ,1PLP b_ >^ ^ ^ : : : : : ^^? ^^_ : ^b _^ :^_^ :: :> : : :c^_ ^ : : _^^ :_^ :c^ ^c: b :: : b 3 ^ ^ : tx]x]x 09xT^ ?b^; ^^ : : ^ : : :]0P P90,U, 01TUT1x0 ]TTU01x] :^ :; b^:c^> b^_^> T]TU00y 8T01\ ^b;^ :_ 1T1x1x9T 0088T :_>: _^^: : ^; ,L0P( ,TU\T 09T0UTTUT1 ^^_^ ,1x0y0 0P(09 0]09U ^;b_b _> >^ 0x1T1x\T > :^_^ : ^c : ^: :^ ^c^ x0y\T0y09T -1Q-00 _:;^ > ,T1,]] $0T0U TTU0xT \TU09 $$1$% 0T1TUUTU :^ >_: 01T0U00T] >^^ b :^: 1x1T1x1x0U ?^:^::U 5T10x1010 Q0y0U0T U\T0T P010U 8x1x1 UT0UTU 10T01Y]]\ 99x0y 0U00x0 0T10U :;^ : 0T0U] 0P0U00 1U0U\ T,9T0 _^b^Q : b^ x1T0,1T1 00T,T1T0y T100x0 U001x1x00 0]10T T1T101U T-00T1 0U00U00TUT T1TTy0 ,0Q\T01010 0U0Q1T0U0 b^_U, 00T010y,T0 1]0P( T10TU0 8xUTy10 0U-0T b_ ^ T,8U] T,(y0 Q9]0] ,TUxy,$$ ,00]] ^?f^c Q P-,T01 ,T,L0 T-1\1x U,T10 U\UU] x]810 %H%Q%uQqQ x,L,, Q0,Py 00-091T TP0x\, 09T00 x,1Pt P,TUT0U8 T-0U01T 0U9x-, 0U0\0 ]P9y, ,0P(P ,T1TU1] \T09X x,L,P ,L0T10TU0 T,T,, ,x,(P 0-T1x1X U8U0y Q\U09 T8T88 010,0T P1,0T1 ,y0P00 ,0T1x T00P1P0T -U\U$0 0U,1P10T 0U0U0, T0T0T-0 T\1x88 `\9TU- 0P0010 0P1T-0P1P 1P11T T100T ,1P0T0 y,T0Q0P,T a\8T1 b c ,]\U0 0-,1001 b : b b : > :: : ? : : b_U\ 1T0]0 : : b ^> b]: :? T10T0 ^ : b 8U8T8 : b ^ b^: :> 8\\]8 :: : ^c :;b;> 00tHP 0-8y9]0 ^;b TU,TT ;f_b: T0-,0 0,T,, $,,Q0p1L 01001045 y0UUP 08\08 T\TT0 0T,T,x T0T00T 9\\18 0]1T0 P\\0] 0\0]8 \8T9\9 \18\9 ,00]0 8U0a8 TT\aT 0T0T1 ]88,] T1T08T8 ]\]\\9 0a8\b ^]]8\] 10U9T T0TTeT 90T088y8 1]9\1T p190-1 ftsTitleOverride Livestock Farming (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Domesticated sheep are raised for their wool, milk and meat. There are more than 200 breeds in the world; certain of them have been developed to meet environmental conditions, and to satisfy human need for clothing and food. Livestock Farming (1 of 3) Livestock farming is concerned with the rearing of animals for their meat, meat products, dairy products, hides, skins, wool, glue and gelatin. The term pastoralism is also used for this branch of agriculture, although technically it does not include the intensive indoor rearing of animals such as pigs and chickens. Meat and meat products are used for both human and animal consumption. Dairy products are based on milk - usually from cows, but also from goats and sheep - and include butter, cream, cheese and yogurt. Hides and skins are mostly used for clothing and footwear, usually in the form of leather. Leather is made by the process of tanning, by which the skin or hide is made smooth and flexible by removing the hair and treating it with various natural or man-made chemicals. Wool - sheared from the animal annually - is spun into yarn and then woven or knitted into garments: sheep are the main producers, but goats, camels, vicua, alpaca and others are also important. Glue and gelatin are made by boiling bones, skin and horns, fertilizers from ground hoof and horn. Livestock farming around the world Although dogs were domesticated as early as 10000-8000 BC in North America, Europe and the Middle East, the first agricultural animal to be domesticated was the sheep: this occurred in the Middle East around 9000 BC. Goats, cattle and pigs soon followed, and livestock farming started to spread to Europe in around 6000 BC. The domestication of draught animals (such as horse, oxen and camel) allowed the mechanization of agriculture to begin. Today, all forms of livestock farming can still be found around the world, from the nomadic Bakhtiari pastoralists of Iran to the extensive commercial ranching of sheep and cattle in Australia and North America, and the intensive techniques of Western Europe. Nine types of domesticated animals predominate and in all these require 30000000 km2 (11580000 sq mi) of grazing land (compared to the total area of arable land of 15000000 km2 / 5790000 sq mi). * ARABLE FARMING * THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 10U1T11Y1T1T11T1P1 ]U10U1 ]U91T101T1T1TUUU1T11T1U01U1U1T1T11U10U011T1101U01UT 1U01T 1T11x1y0U10U, 1T1x]y010U10U11U01y]10U11T1010U1x110U11T10U110U1T T1111 10U0U1T110U- U]1U1U01U1]101U90 U1T]U]1U 1U0UUYx91T 01U011U111 1U]U1T10UP1T 0y1T11T1x911T1U0 1T101TUU0 UU1y1U0U01T1011T11U0 1011U0 0UTU11T1y1\1T111]1x ]UUU1T19UTUUU1T11y0U0U 09T1UTUU Y1T1T ]UTU01U ]U0U10y ]1U0U1 ]U1T1y0U]U01U0 10U1y10U] 1T1T1 1U1T-T 01UTU1x1 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1T1U, -1T1UbU9Q1T1U1U- -1]11 p190-2 ftsTitleOverride Livestock Farming (page 2) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Factory farming of turkeys in Tuscany. Livestock Farming (2 of 3) Modern pastoralism Meat and meat products are too expensive for most of the worlds people to consume, because large herbivores are too inefficient at converting plant material (their main source of food) into meat for human consumption. For example, rangeland cattle are less than 4% efficient in terms of their ability to convert grass into meat. The other 96% is lost in keeping warm, moving, breathing and digesting the vast quantities of leafy food. However, as the wealth of a population increases then so more of its disposable income is spent on meat. This reaches its maximum development in the USA, where more than half of all the grain produced is fed to cattle for eventual consumption as steaks and burgers. In an attempt to make livestock farming a more productive method of producing food, many forms of specialization have developed. Intensive farming in Western Europe has been based on centuries of carefully controlled breeding to produce an animal well suited for market requirements. Grazing lands have been plowed and reseeded with the most productive mixtures of grasses, clovers and vetches. In many animals, breeding has been made more efficient in the 20th century by the use of artificial insemination, by which semen from a single male exhibiting the desired characteristics can be stored at low temperatures for months and be used to fertilize a large number of females. Totally new varieties have been made possible by the genetic engineering of specific animal types to suit particular locations. Thus the strength of the yak has been combined with the meat and milk quality of the cow to improve the main livestock type used in the foothills of the Himalaya. Factory farming The most recent trend in intensive animal rearing has been towards factory farming, in which animals are housed in heated buildings. This is done to minimize energy losses through movement and heat loss. All food is brought to the animal and all waste products removed. Pig farms, battery houses for hens, stall-fed cattle and the animal feedlot found around large American cities are all examples of this trend. Factory farming has been considered by some people to be morally offensive in that animals are no longer free to range. More recently, factory farming has been criticized for the practice of feeding growth hormones and chemical additives to animals in an effort to boost the quantity and quality of the product. Some authorities believe these substances are cumulative in the human food chain and can cause health problems. It should be stressed, however, that if we continue to demand large quantities of red meat (itself now under suspicion as a cause of human illness such as heart disease) and dairy products then we shall be forced to rely upon factory-farming methods. 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)P-L- L-P1P-U0- --1-1]9]]U1 p190-3 ftsTitleOverride Livestock Farming (page 3) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Goat farmers in Chad. The goat is often reared in the poorer countries for both its milk and meat. The Nubian breed of goat is particularly prevalent in India, the Middle East and North Africa. Livestock Farming (3 of 3) THE MAIN TYPES OF DOMESTICATED ANIMAL CATTLE Worldwide numbers: 1295 million. Distribution: worldwide. Uses: meat, meat products, milk, dairy products, leather, draught animals (oxen). Many different varieties exist, some bred principally for beef, others for milk production; in addition different varieties have been bred for different climatic conditions. Cows can be bred at any time of the year. Following the birth of the calf, the mother remains in milk for up to 10 months. Good cows can be kept in an almost continuous cycle of calf production and milk yield from about 18 months of age to 10 years. Most male calves are castrated and reared for beef, being ready for slaughter at 18 months. In contrast, animals destined for veal production are fed only on milk, and slaughtered at about 14 weeks. Worldwide numbers: 857 million. Distribution: worldwide. Uses: every part of the pig can be used, and products include meat, meat products, leather, hair for brushes, fat for industrial use. Traditionally, pigs have been allowed to roam through woodlands rooting for worms, slugs, roots and young shoots. Nowadays, economic pressures have forced pig farmers to keep their animals in purpose-built buildings. Maize (corn) is fed direct to the pigs to ensure rapid, high-quality meat production. Pigs intended for pork are slaughtered at 40-50 kg (88-110 lb) body weight, while for bacon, a weight of 80-100 kg (176-220 lb) is acceptable. SHEEP Worldwide numbers: 1203 million. Distribution: mainly Old World, Australia and New Zealand. Uses: wool, meat, skins; locally milk for cheese making. An amazing variety of domestic types have been bred, showing all extremes of size, with or without horns and with or without a fleece. Two major categories can be identified, the hairy sheep kept for milk and meat (especially in Africa), and the woolly sheep with fluffier hair and found mainly in the higher latitudes. Sheep can generally survive on poorer pasture than cattle. Male lambs are usually castrated and reared for slaughter. On average, a sheep yields about 3.5 kg (7 lb) of wool per year. HORSES Worldwide number: 62 million. Distribution: worldwide. Uses: transportation, sport. The domesticated horse shows a great variety of types, but is often divided into two main groups. The Arabian stock produces a fine-boned, smooth-skinned animal, well suited for running and pulling light carriages but with a nervous disposition. The so-called cold-blooded stock is characterized by a heavy frame, a shaggy coat, and a quiet temperament, making such animals suitable for farm work. ASSES AND MULES Worldwide numbers: 59 million. Distribution: mainly Africa, Asia and South America. Uses: human transport, agricultural work and to power machines (especially water wheels and grinding apparatus). Also for meat in China and the Middle East. No other domesticated animal will perform so much work for so little food and attention as the ass (or donkey). They are very resistant to disease and can have a working life of 40 years. Mules are crosses between horses and asses, and are more versatile and less flighty than horses. Mules are sterile, and therefore each generation has to be bred afresh from horse and ass parents. GOATS Worldwide numbers: 594 million. Distribution: Africa, Middle and Far East. Uses: milk, wool, skins, fine leather, meat, horns. Unfortunately, goats are destructive foragers and will overgraze an area if their population is too high. The goat has been called the 'poor man's cow' due to its association with the poorest of agricultural economies, although the Cashmere and Angora varieties are valued for their high-quality wool. CAMELS Worldwide numbers: 20 million. Distribution: North Africa, Middle East, Central Asia. Uses: transportation (carries a load, can be ridden and pulls wagons), hides, dung for fuel, meat in emergencies. The camel is the ideal animal for use in dry environments. A good camel can walk 80 km (50 mi) in a day, though the average would be only 20 km (12 mi). Camel caravans travel at 4 km/h (2 mph) and take frequent rests. A female lactates for 11-15 months and yields between 1-7 liters of milk per day. WATER BUFFALO Worldwide numbers: c. 126 million. Distribution: mostly in India, Pakistan, and East and Southeast Asia. Uses: draught animal, meat (eaten by some Indian castes), skins and horns used commercially. The water buffalo has been the most important tropical domestic animal. Its numbers are now declining slowly because it interbreeds freely with cattle, but by so doing becomes highly susceptible to bovine diseases. Increasing agricultural mechanization is also leading to its demise. Water buffalo are still widely used to work the rice fields, where they pull plows and carts, and can even be ridden. There are many local varieties, all of which, however, are characterized by massive size (1000 kg/2200 lb). If the strain can be kept pure, the water buffalo exceeds all other cattle in terms of strength, resistance to disease, and intelligence. It can work for 12-15 hours each day but requires frequent access to water. POULTRY Worldwide numbers: c. 9600 million. Distribution: worldwide. Uses: meat, eggs, feathers. Types: chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese. Poultry are mostly low-grade grazers and foragers that can survive on the leftovers around farmyards or kitchen wastes. In developed countries, poultry rearing has been revolutionized by the breeding of smaller birds that can be kept in small cages (battery farming). * ARABLE FARMING * THE FOOD-PROCESSING INDUSTRY * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture 1PM0Q)PU Uy-T1y 11-U1 y-PU-yyUy $UUy11y y]1yUQ u]11-, 11Q2M]y yUU1UUUU --xy-1x1Qy 0uy1y Z-UTUU y1u-Y- y1Q]U ]-xyU 1yY1U1xy UQ1y] UQ1,y 1UUQy UyUQUT 1xyUU-x UyTQTyU y1PUy -UUUyUy yUyU1yU}T Uy211 y1yyUU, x,y1y 1-U]y] -0Ut1Uy] ^1y]y yy1uUy Ty0y1y Uy1YU -yyUPUxy u])yU-UT yY-U1x Uy1T-Uy}yx ]1yyUy y]-Uy 11-Ty xUyUyT Uy1Uxy P]yyU -0-11-U \y1y0 1Q,--x1t UyxUT 1xUy1--, UUUM1 1P(-PyUy y,yUy 1$U11 xy]yyUU-x UUU,y UyTUTyUU-y0--L u]y]yy u(,U0 UyUYT -x1yy -1P1- U1T1)yy yy]UT1-yQ 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buttonClick WTIGoBack GWTIHelp buttonClick buttonClick WTIHelp Gallery WTIGallery buttonClick buttonClick WTIGallery Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Explorer WTIExplorer buttonClick buttonClick WTIExplorer ]WTIQuit buttonClick buttonClick WTIQuit NextPage WTINextPage buttonClick buttonClick WTINextPage Arrows ArrowBack WTIPreviousPage buttonClick buttonClick WTIPreviousPage ArrowForward WTINextPage buttonClick buttonClick WTINextPage A:A;@ 0101T1T1T1 0U0101T1T1 T10U0101T1 T1T10U0101 T1T1T1010U 0U0U01T101 0U0U0U01T1 010U0U0U01 p192-1 ftsTitleOverride Forestry (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Timber on board ship, ready for transportation to the sawmill or paper mill. Forestry (1 of 4) Trees present the largest and most highly developed form of plant life on this planet. Trees grow together in continuous and extensive tracts of woodland, or forests. Forests are the most extensive, complex and biologically productive of all the ecosystems on this planet. They have been used by mankind since the earliest times, but in recent years their overuse has led to a serious deforestation problem. Two thousand years ago, forests probably extended over some 60 million km2 (23 million sq mi), but continuous felling has reduced this amount to an estimated 28 million km2 (11 million sq mi), two fifths of the world's land surface, with a further fifth - 13 million km2 (5 million sq mi) - of open, scrub-like forest. The two main types of forest Trees can be divided into two main types: the softwoods, all of which are coniferous gymnosperms, and the hardwoods, all of which are broadleafed angiosperms. Softwoods are mainly found in the colder, high latitudes, while the hardwoods occupy the mid and low latitudes. However, this natural distribution is changing as mankind cuts down the natural forest and replants with species of high commercial value. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS: CONIFEROUS AND TEMPERATE FORESTS * ECOSYSTEMS: TROPICAL FORESTS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture U-U,y1T- t1Uty,UU U,U-L-y0-L UU,UTU TyyyQ 1T1Q0-) }Q1yUx-T1y yy-T-0 U-U-$-y M-x1U ,P1yy] yUx-P-P -y1P- }1PUQ0yT y0yUx-PU UP-L1P M,P1,y,L Uyy,1T1,UUy11 U-(Q0U,$ ,$,P0 TQ,L,LUy1 y1yy01y- U}(P),Uy UT-L-,L ,QPyuU,Q1x- $,Q]xy UUUyxU y,1Q-UUTUU1Q $,$,$$,LUy ),-PUP]Q] yUy1PU1 -,L1PUu($ -,L-x M0y-yU u0Q]y]yU yy}1yy1 UxUxUQU0y1U-1U0 M$-(Q(QUPx yUUUx-yT, Ux-Q(,U y-PUuTP ,QL-,y ,M0yT ,P)P,yUx] y]Uyy- 1yyy- $,P(Q,,uTP1 Uyy-0- y1Q01Qx 1Q0yy-y 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)T-P)yUx1yQU 1U1y1y Uy1U1 y-T1y 1-)x1y :2-1Zy x-y0$U )1,yUP 1y]U, yTQyUyUUU,1T,Q)y 1QUy1-0 1U11UyUUyU -Q)P1Q)PUQU UU,Uy-01 U-1y] UU,yUU-T U1-111)1 yy11Q 1--U- 1yUyQ UQ10U -M,U-0Q ^:_:: V::V1V1 ^ ^^: ::V12 UP1--0Q-0u -x-Q0-yU (--1- xy1y1 -U1)-0y Q1-11 ^^^^ ^Y2^b:2 y]QUy-P)T yP-MUQ-yy UU1-U -1UU- 2U2Y1V y11-,--111- -0U-y y11UUU 111-1- U21V2: 1: 1y, 11yyU x-LUy1 yy1Q-1- V92U2b 1V^ 1UyU10yy TUUUyUyyQ 1Q111--Uy UUyUyU1Q y]y0- 11U]y :V1 U1-PUy-T1UyQ]M01,1--Uy :11-- :Y:2: UU0U11-UUUyU- -y1y1x UyU-L --1-- 1yy1x 3^^V1-] -:^^ p192-2 ftsTitleOverride Forestry (page 2) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A sawmill cuts logs into rough sawn boards. Forestry (2 of 4) The usefulness of trees We only eat 4% of the material contained in forests (mainly seeds and fruits), the remaining woody tissue being inedible. But it is this hard tissue that is of particular use to humanity. Along with chipped flints, wood was the first implement used by early man. Until the 18th century - when brick making became widespread - wood was the prime material for building dwelling places. Wood was also extensively used for charcoal making and as fuel, and is still used widely as such, especially in Third World countries. The Industrial Revolution increased the demand for timber, which was used for such things as pit props and railway sleepers. Deforestation became widespread throughout Europe, with the previous 80% forest cover reduced to little more than 30%. Today, softwood timber is used for floorboards, roof trusses, packing cases and cheap furniture, and increasingly for conversion into cellulose pulp and paper. Hardwoods, being more expensive and capable of being worked, are used mainly for furniture making. Unmanaged forestry By the end of World War I, the advent of cheap world shipping allowed timber to be transported easily from both the tropics and from the great softwood forests of Siberia, Canada and Scandinavia. Forests were seen as inexhaustible reserves of timber. By 1950, most European countries were deficient in some or all home supplies of timber, and more of the virgin forests of the world were brought into extensive production. This was particularly so of the tropical forests. In the search for species such as mahogany, teak, deal, rosewood and sandalwood, vast areas have been destroyed for the sake of a small number of valuable trees. The proportion of commercially useful to useless tree species is often in the order of one to a hundred. Attempts to restock these felled areas have varied. In the worst cases they are allowed to regenerate as best they can, but with the commercially significant trees removed there are no seed sources to allow a complete sequence of species to begin the forest succession anew. Soils - particularly tropical soils - have been severely eroded by deforestation. Concern about the future supplies of tropical timber led to the formation of the International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) implemented by only some countries in 1985. It is in the tropics that the absence of a coordinated forestry policy has had the greatest consequence, with 170000 km2 (66000 sq mi) cleared annually. Commercial logging has often been followed by burning the forest waste to encourage the growth of grasses in place of trees so that cattle ranching can be introduced, as in Brazil. Where tropical forests have been cleared, the soil is usually too thin to support arable agriculture for long, and even grass for grazing can only be supported for about three years. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS: CONIFEROUS AND TEMPERATE FORESTS * ECOSYSTEMS: TROPICAL FORESTS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread .&+ +E .&+ +E fname CaptionText WTN.tbk pName buttonClick buttonClick = True pName = fname = "WTN" defaultPage fName ).tbk" "CaptionText" close = False CaptionText Sawmill cuts logs **++* p192-3 ftsTitleOverride Forestry (page 3) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Forestry (3 of 4) Managed forestry Forest management plans exist for only a small proportion of the world's forests. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that plans exist for only 23% of forests. Management plans are necessary to coordinate replanting, thinning, spraying against disease, fertilizing and ultimately harvesting and marketing the timber crop. Because trees take up to 100 years to reach sawmill size, private investment in forestry must usually be encouraged through provision of government grants to cover the establishment costs of the forest. Tax relief on the profits gained from the sale of timber are also sometimes given. Alternatively, the government of a country can establish its own department of forestry that effectively becomes responsible for the management of the forest resource. In some countries, notably the USA, forest management is interpreted in a much wider sense and embraces wildlife management, watershed management, prevention of soil erosion, and provision of recreation and leisure facilities. Managed forests differ in almost every respect from natural forests. One or two species are extensively planted in blocks forming even-aged forests that can be more easily managed than the highly variable natural forest. In temperate latitudes, species such as spruce, pine, fir and eucalypts now predominate, with species selected for rate and quantity of wood production. The trees are planted close together to ensure straight growth. This is necessary for the mechanized handling and processing of the timber. The species planted in an area are often exotic conifers, that is they are not native species. The exotic species are used because they often have faster growth rates than native species. They produce softwood timber much in demand for conversion into paper pulp. However, because they are non-native, such plantations cannot support the native birds, insects and mammals that were adapted to the vegetation of the area prior to forestation. Thus even managed forestry can destroy delicate ecosystems - for example in the wetlands of the Flow Country in northern Scotland. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS: CONIFEROUS AND TEMPERATE FORESTS * ECOSYSTEMS: TROPICAL FORESTS Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture zU^z^UVy 801010(U 9A9A98 11yy11 0(-)-)1)-y BA"@EA GDEF! DB"8" (xyxp qppxp p0qp)1 (T00L0y00x (0(xq(x0x (xx0xx00xp px0yxx xpxxpxp1 p00(( xxyxx x0--081y 11010-10- 0yxx1 (L((L(( $(L$( 0(0(0p x(x(1(x p192-4 ftsTitleOverride Forestry (page 4) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Forestry (4 of 4) A MANAGED CONIFEROUS FOREST Typical life cycle in a developed country Week 0 Cells taken from an ideal parent tree for cloning. The 'daughter cells' are cultured in a laboratory then transferred to a 'growth chamber' to achieve rapid growth. Week 24 Seedlings transferred to nursery area for 'hardening off'. 18 months Planting out by hand begins in the forest. Site has been plowed and young trees are planted into the over-turned turfs. A planting density of 250000 trees per km2 (650000 trees per sq mi) is commonplace. 2-5 years Periodic clearing of competing vegetation until trees are tall enough (2 m / 6 ft) to shade out their competitors. 10-20 years Gradual thinning of weaker trees to give a typical density of 150000 trees per km2 (390000 trees per sq mi). Periodic aerial spraying with pesticides to control disease. On infertile soils, aerial spraying of fertilizers may be carried out. 30 years onwards The first salable timber destined for the pulp mill is produced. Minimum sawmill size is about 80 mm (3 in) diameter and 1 m (3 1/4 ft) in length. Pesticides are applied as and when required. Thinnings continue as the forest matures until by about 60 years only 30000 trees per km2 (78000 trees per sq mi) remain. Only the straight trunk wood is sold; everything else is allowed to decompose on the forest floor. 60 years onwards The forest may be 'clear felled', that is, all remaining trees are removed and the land replowed ready for the next crop of trees. Alternatively, the mature trees can be underplanted with shade-tolerant trees to produce a forest of more natural appearance. * FUNGI, ALGAE AND NON-FLOWERING PLANTS * FLOWERING PLANTS * ECOSYSTEMS: CONIFEROUS AND TEMPERATE FORESTS * ECOSYSTEMS: TROPICAL FORESTS Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread _b5{A eekAeAe p194-1 ftsTitleOverride Fishing (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords There are two main techniques of commercial fishing. The first, drift fishing, can be used to catch the shoaling species of surface fish (such as herring and anchovy) that live no deeper than 15 m (50 ft) below the surface. Drift nets of monofilament nylon have become increasingly lengthy and nets of up to 100 km (60 miles) and between 15 and 60 m (50-330 ft) depth are used to catch species such as tuna. Such huge nets indiscriminately catch many other non-commercial species such as dolphins, turtles, seals and whales. Both the United Nations and the European Commission have banned the use of such nets, although many fishing fleets use 'escape clauses' written into the agreements. For example, nets can be divided into shorter lengths by including 'dolphin doors' and the mesh size of nets can be enlarged to prevent the trapping of some species, although such modifications to the nets are largely ineffective. Drift nets are slowly dragged through the surface waters by boats called drifters. A variation of this method is the purse seine, a large net either fired out over a shoal or pulled around a shoal by two boats. Weights pull the net down and around the fish and the bottom of the net is closed by pulling tight a line. Trawl fishing techniques are used to catch fish living at depths below 15 m (50 ft) such as cod and flatfish. Trawl nets resemble a large funnel shape and are pulled behind a boat, usually a trawler. The most common type is the otter trawl, a conically shaped bag with two large 'otter boards', designed to force open the mouth of the net. ` W Fishing (1 of 3) Fishing is the harvesting of fish and other marine animals from the oceans and inland waters to provide food for humans. Fish can be processed to make fishmeal (an important animal food), and to make oils, glues, fertilizers and drugs. From the earliest times, fishing has been one of humanity's most important means of feeding itself. Spears, lines and nets were used to catch fish, at first by fishermen standing at the edges of the water. Gradually, the use of boats allowed fishing to move into deeper waters, a trend that has continued up to the present day. The present annual marine catch totals about 76 million tons. More than 75% of this total is caught in the northern hemisphere - despite the fact that 90% of the surface of the southern hemisphere is covered with water. Traditionally, fishing has been concentrated on the continental shelves, where the shallow waters receive sufficient sunlight and nutrients washed in by rivers to support large amounts of plankton, the tiny plants and animals that provide the main source of food for fish. The principal fishing nations today are Japan, China and Russia. Because of the perishable nature of fish, the fishing industry was traditionally based on many small ports each serving its own immediate area. The advent of railways and, later, of refrigerated lorries has meant that fish can now be transported longer distances, and commercial fishing has generally become concentrated on a small number of ports, each with its own processing and freezing factories. In 1950 the total annual catch was 21 million tons, most of which came from inshore fishing, that is from fishing grounds within about 100 km (60 mi) of a port. Small boats netted the pelagic species (those fish that live in the surface waters), such as herring, mackerel and anchovy. Further out to sea, beyond the continental shelves, the deep-sea or demersal fish (cod, hake, plaice, skate) were caught by larger vessels that remained at sea for up to a week before discharging their catch. Between 1950 and 1970 the commercial fishing industry was revolutionized by technological advances. Larger boats with on-board refrigeration plants enabled vessels to remain at sea for up to a month. Underwater sonar allowed shoals of fish to be detected with comparative ease, and powerful hydraulic winches made possible the use of larger nets. * THE OCEANS * FISHES * MARINE MAMMALS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Picture Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread ONOH+H %NONO O*%*I* $ONOONONI$ $NONNONIN N%N%*IN%* %ONONOONON OON%*%*%*I ONNOHOON IONON$+H H+HO$ NNONOOION% *I*I*I*+NI ONOIONOHON ONONO+HO$O *%N+HINI* NHOHNONNO NONONOHNON *%N%N%H* $ONO$ $ONOONOONO ONOONONOON $O$O$N+N+H ON%NO$ NOOHON*IN INOINOHONO ONONI*I*O$ O$+HO*I*O$ %NON+HO* OO*NOONONO ONNIN *$+H*I*OH+ N%NO$O*OH +NNOHOONO HONOONON HONO$O*O*O H+N%NO$ON% IONONONONO ONOHOOINOO N%$+H+H+NI N+H+H+N%N% %NONON+NOO $ONON NOONONOOHO ONON%*H%*I *I*ON%NON$ ON+HONO$ NOINNOIONO NHONONONON OONNON$%N% *O*%NN +HOH+HO*I* 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Such techniques are a far cry from the intensive 'vacuum-cleaning' of the seas by the fishing fleets of the developed nations. Fishing (2 of 3) Overfishing and ocean management In the 20 years up to 1970 the annual world catch increased by 7% per annum, but in 1971/72 a serious slump occurred. This was due mainly to the collapse of the Peruvian anchovy industry following uncontrolled overfishing. Elsewhere, the 'vacuum cleaning' of the oceans by large factory fishing fleets had so depleted the world fish reserves that in the North Sea, for example, the estimated stock of herring fell by 75%, from 4 million to 1 million fish. The Californian sardine industry had collapsed through overfishing in the 1950s. A similar fate befell the South African pilchard industry in the 1970s, followed by haddock in the northwest Atlantic (the catch in 1974 was only 8% of what it had been in 1965) and the Alaskan pollack in 1975/76 (though this species had recovered by the 1980s). The oceans represent vast, sustainable sources of food for human consumption. A sustainable annual harvest of 100 million tons appears attainable if a carefully managed and internationally coordinated fishing policy is accepted by the global fishing industry. Persistent local over fishing and removal of undersized, juvenile fish has led most countries to introduce quota tonnages for specific species that may be caught by the fishing fleet. The quota is set annually following careful research into the general size and state of health of the breeding population of fish species. Additionally, all countries with a coastline now specify territorial rights that extend 364 km (200 mi) offshore, and within which fishing rights (and extraction of mineral resources such as oil) are strictly confined to the home nation. The so-called exclusion zone for foreign vessels is a central concept in a UN initiative that has established a legally enforceable Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) off the coast of each country. Nevertheless, the EEZ is the cause of considerable animosity between fishing fleets the world over and skirmishes over disputed territories are commonplace. * THE OCEANS * FISHES * MARINE MAMMALS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ):221 :^^V:^ 22:22:^^: V:2:: V21U2 ::^:V ::2^2^2 yyQ$^ ^:V:: :^2^2: 2:2V2 ::V:V:V ^1^:: ^:::^: 2::2^ :V:V:V :V:V:^ ^^:^^ :V2^:V: :^:V:2^:^: 2^2^2 V:V:: Q$Q$-P ,$-LV ,$-QP Y2^21 Y2^2Y:YV 2Y2U2 2YVY2 :Y2Y2 Y1V2V 1V22V2Y 2Y2Y2Y 22U2U2 2U2U21V12V :Y2Y21V1V2V 21V1V ),M-- ,yu), p194-3 Fishing (3 of 3) Fish farming Deep-sea fishing is expensive in terms of the fixed costs of boats, equipment, fuel and manpower. It is also a hard and dangerous means of providing human food. As a result, the deliberate rearing of fish in tanks or netted enclosures in lakes and coastal waters has now become commercially important. The products of fish farms attract a ready market, providing a guaranteed quality and size of product that is difficult to match from traditional fishing sources. Fish farming (aquaculture) has its origins in China, perhaps as long ago as 2000 BC. Modern fish farming now supplies 100 000 tons per year - 13% of the world catch - and this figure is set to rise. Not all 'wild' fish can be reared in fish farms. Traditionally, the freshwater carp has been the main species, particularly in Third World countries. Since the 1970s, developed countries have invested vast sums in research, and trout, salmon, shrimps, crabs and lobsters are all now successfully produced in large amounts. Very rapid growth is achieved by the direct feeding of grain or grain by-products supplemented with high-quality protein. There is great concern over the potential for transmission of disease and genetic damage to native fish species through interbreeding with the escaped fish-farm stock. In Norway alone, an estimated 500000 salmon escaped from fish farms in 1988, and farmed fish now form 15% of the entire catch of sea salmon. The threat to wild fish is not to entire species, but to genetically distinct varieties that live in specific rivers. Fish as a food source Fish and other marine animals (particularly crustaceans such as lobsters, crabs, shrimps, prawns and krill, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus) supply humans on average with about 15% of their protein, rising to a maximum of 60% in Japan. Some 25% of all animal feedstock is derived from fish, representing about one third of the total fish catch. One ton of fish meal can produce half a ton of pork or poultry meat, a notably inefficient use of protein resources. It is ironic that the protein-deficient Third World countries sell much of their fish catch to the industrialized northern hemisphere nations for eventual use as animal feed. International trade in fish and fish products now exceeds $15 billion per year. The price of fish has risen more rapidly than that of other foods - largely because of the increase in processing and packaging costs. A major potential source of food is krill, a shrimp-like creature 4-6 cm (1 1/2 -2 1/2 in) long, which lives in vast shoals in the cold waters of the Atlantic and Pacific. Krill form a major source of food for whales, but with the decline in whale numbers the amount of unharvested krill has increased. Already 450000 tons of krill are caught each year, mainly by the Russian and Japanese fleets. The potential annual catch is estimated at 50 million tons, which would provide a major source of nutritious food for humans as well as a foodstock for animals. WHALING The commercial hunting of whales for their meat and valuable oils dates from the 18th century, but the balance became disastrously weighted against the whale with the advent of the steam boat and guns that fired harpoons with explosive heads. In 1900 an estimated 4.4 million whales of all types existed. Hunting, combined with the effects of pollution, has reduced this number to less than 1 million. Many species of whales have been hunted to the verge of extinction; first the humpback (early 1900s) then the blue whale (1930s), finwhale (1940s), sei whale (1965), and the smaller species currently hunted, such as the minke whale, by 1970. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) called for a complete ban on whaling from 1985-86, which was reluctantly agreed to by all nations except the Japanese, who still catch whales(327 minke whales in 1991-92) for 'scientific' purposes. A new 'Management Procedure', first discussed by the IWC in 1991, proposed a quota system for harvesting whales, but this created a furor among whaling nations such as Iceland and Norway. No agreement has been currently reached, nor is there agreement on the latest scientific evidence suggesting that less than half the number of whales may actually exist than was previously thought likely. * THE OCEANS * FISHES * MARINE MAMMALS * ECOSYSTEMS: AQUATIC Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture ftsTitle ftsTitleOverride ftsKeywords Fishing (page 3) !f ...) g CB:CB gBCCgCB gBCCgCBCfC fCCBg fCCBCBgCCB CCgCB fCCBCBCgBC BgCBCBCCBC BCCBCB BCBgCCBgCB CBCCBCCBCB BCBCCBCBCC BgBCCBCfCB 22CfCB gBCCgBCCB BCfCCBg fCCBg BCfCBCBCgB CCgCB BgCBgCB fCBCgBCBCC BgBCCfCBCg CBCgBCgB BgBCCfCCBg BCgBCBgCBC 2*:gBCC BCBCCgCBCg BCBCCBCCBC gBCBgCB gBCBCBCfCC :CCBCgBCCB CBCCBCfCCB gBCCf BCCBCgCCBg CBCfCCBgCB BgCBCBCCBg BCCBgCBgBC 2V2**BCCBC CgBCCgCB fCCBgCBCgB 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gCBCfCCBgC BCfCCBgCBC fCCBgCBCgC CBCCgCB BgCCBCf BCgBCCB fCBCCBCCBC CCBgCCB CBCBgC BCBCCBCCBg CCBCCgBC fCCBCBgBC BgBCBgBCBg BCBgBCBgBC BgBCBgBCBg BCBgBCBgBC BgBCBgBCBC CCBCfC BCBgCB BCBCf BCBC CCBCg gBCCBgCBCB CgBCg BCCBCBCBC BCBCBCBCBC BCBCBCBCBC BCBCBCBCBC BCBCBCBCBC BCBCBCBCB BCBCCBC BCBC CBCC p196-1 #x$P%2& ftsTitleOverride Food Processing (page 1) ftsTitle ftsKeywords A whisky brewery. Whisky is a distilled spirit made from cereals. Scotch whisky is made from malted barley, Irish whisky usually from barley, and North American whiskey and bourbon from maize and rye. To make Scotch whisky the barley is malted and then heated over a peat fire. Water is combined with the flavored malt to make a mash, fermented to beer. It is then distilled twice to make whisky at 70% alcohol, which is reduced with water to 43% of volume. (Eric Thorburn) Food Processing (1 of 3) For thousands of years people have processed natural foodstuffs to improve their keeping qualities, nutritional value or flavor. Natural processes have been harnessed to create entirely new foods and drinks, or to change the characteristics of a raw material completely. Biotechnology and advanced engineering are now used to enhance what can be done with the world's harvest, and will undoubtedly shape some of the foods and drinks of the future. The oldest processing techniques improve the digestibility and enhance the keeping qualities of foodstuffs. Examples include grain-milling, the cooking of meat, and the fermentation of grapes to make wine. Fermentation and enzymes The most widely used biological technique is fermentation - the changing of food components such as carbohydrates into natural preservatives, or more easily digestible nutrients, by the action of yeasts, fungi or bacteria. Bread-making, the brewing of beers, and the manufacture of yogurts and cheeses are typical examples. Fermentation is also used for the preservation of proteins, as for example in meats such as pastrami and salamis. In Japan, fermentation has been used for centuries both for food conservation and in order to produce new flavors, such as rice sake, soybean sauce, and whole fermented soybeans (natto). Enzymes - proteins that are produced by living organisms - are used as catalysts in biochemical reactions in a number of food-processing techniques. For example, rennet, derived from rennin (an enzyme found in the stomachs of cud-chewing animals such as cows), is used to curdle milk in the manufacture of cheese. Dairy foods Milk, butter, cheese and yogurt are staples - basic components of many diets all over the world. Milk is mainly water, with some protein, fat, lactose (milk sugar) and salts. It sours easily, and can also be a vehicle for human diseases. Louis Pasteur (1822-95), the great French microbiologist, devised a method of heating liquids to temperatures that destroy harmful microorganisms. His work in the 1860s concentrated on wines and beers, where spoilage caused great economic losses. He found that heating to temperatures as low as 57 deg C (135 deg F) for a few minutes extended the safe shelf-life without spoiling the taste. Pasteurization of milk is undoubtedly one of the most significant advances in public health of the last hundred years. In 1907, Ilya Mechnikov (1845-1916) of the Pasteur Institute in Paris published the results of his research into the long life-spans of Bulgarian farming families. He was convinced that their diet of natural yogurt was the cause. Since then yogurts have shown a greater worldwide market growth than any other dairy product. In the manufacture of yogurt, certain bacteria are responsible for turning the lactose in milk into lactic acid, so enhancing the milk's nutritional value and preventing other organisms from causing rancid sourness. Bread and alcohol Grains are another staple of the human diet. Modern milling of cereals such as wheat and maize separates fibrous, floury and proteinaceous components. The fiber is known as bran and the protein as germ, which often has a high oil content. The flour is either used for baking or processed further, by means of biochemical enzymes, into fructose or glucose syrups. These are then used in all kinds of snacks, processed foods, cakes and confectionery. The germ and bran are often sold separately as health foods. Bakeries are now often recombining the separate ingredients in 'multi-grain', bran-enriched and 'natural' breads, to take advantage of a consumer trend for foods with a healthier image. Enzyme-based whole-grain processes are now being developed to retain protein and fiber in the end-product and avoid separation techniques. Other types of grain are used to make drinks. Barley is malted - the grains are sprouted in warm, wet conditions that encourage natural enzymes to turn the starchy component into maltose, another sugar. After drying, the malted barley is used as one of the sugar ingredients in making beer and lager; special yeasts act on these sugars to turn them into carbon dioxide and alcohol. Other sugary or starchy materials - such as cactus juice, potatoes, wild fruits, rye and sugar cane - can be fermented. The resulting juice (must) is then heated to drive off the alcohol, which is condensed by cooling and collected as a high-alcohol liquor. Each of the resulting liquors has its own distinctive character - the materials mentioned above producing (respectively) tequila, vodka, eau de vie, bourbon and rum. Drying and cooking The simplest and among the most ancient processing methods are drying and cooking. Drying is still used for preserving foods for long journeys or for eating out of season. The aim is to reduce the level of water to below that at which microorganisms can grow. Examples include meats, such as North American pemmican from deer and buffalo; fishes such as Bombay duck (or bummalo) of India; and fruits, including apricots, grapes (currants) and plums (prunes). Tea leaves, coffee berries and the pulp around the cocoa bean are dried and allowed to undergo natural fermentation before final preparation. Drying over slow-burning wood gives foods such as fish, sausages and cheese an attractive smoked flavor. Coffee - the most common substance preserved by freeze-drying - is frozen rapidly and then dried in a vacuum. Cooking is a necessary preparation of many foods. Cooking also helps preserve food for short periods, but the continued presence of water allows the eventual growth of organisms and the development of rancid and other 'off' flavors. Baking, boiling, roasting and frying all sterilize foods through the direct or prolonged effects of heat. In cooking, the protein structure is altered, which tends to improve the palatability of meats and vegetables. For some foods, such as dried cereals and pulses, boiling is essential to rehydrate them, to soften fiber and to inactivate lectins, naturally occurring anti-insect poisons that are found in, for example, peas and beans. Baking breaks down storage carbohydrates and thus increases the nutrient value of such staples as plantain bananas, yams, Jerusalem artichokes and potatoes. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING * FISHING * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture -,(-,L --,-,- -,--,L,-,- -,-,-- ,M,P( ,)P0-M-L1- Q0Q)-T y1y1yUy UT1U1,U, P)P,-,M,P ,--,,-,P ,-,-P) -(U,0-M,L- Q0-1q 1y1yV y1y1yyUy yy1y,1P)P P)-,- ,M,(-,-,L- P,-,)P -,-,--,),L -(Q(P1Q0-- ,U,)1-011y y1yyUyy^ UP1--,P ,-,Q- ,-,-,M- -,-,--L--, -P(-,M-T,0 Q0-1Q(-P0- (Q1P-U1T1U yUyUUy UU1UT- 1,-,-,-,- ,)-,-,-,-, -,)-,--L -,L-,P )-P)P)P0-T Q1,U1t yyTU-M0 -,P)-,-, -,-,-,-,-, )-,Q( -,,-, (-P), -,-0,U,1,Q 0-M,M,Q(-L -0-UU0u yyU1u0 Q0--,) 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-L-0Q,M0,y t1xQyTy TyuTyx, -L-L- P)P-T-T-,M ,)T-0Q(1PU PTUtUxxyTy Tx,)T,My] ,-,1P)0-P- )T,1P-(Q,T QT-x-u0yyP xTu,y,Q0U U1-11-11 ,(Q(U ,L-,M,P )P)0P),P,( P1,)P-x-xT ytTyQxy PyUxUux1 P-(QU] Q0,Q0,U,)T ,L-T,1Px-, xUtyxUyT xQxy0Q0 -11-11 P)0P,(Q(, Q),T,-0P), p--xx-yTUt TyTyyx Ty,,)PUx P(,-L,1 P-0Q(,P-Q( Q,T,U,x0QT xPyTyyTyT UxQyPTU,T -M,,- (-L,-,M,)P 1,U,(0P,)P ),x-pTQUyU yUtxU ytTQ,M,yT -L-xUyUy,) P,Q(Q0- T-,Q(,Q,M0 P,0Q,T,q0t xtxUxyxUy xUyyxUUT P1,1U ,yyUt) -,)P-,U(-T ,M,-(-P(1u 0PxQTUyPyP yUxUxUy PL1P-UT 1-11-1 -,(Q,)P ,)T,-P(,,P (P(P1t0,yP UTuTxyxUty yuTux,U,)U $,$,L (P,1P,)P( -M,L-,U,(P -p1PUtytyP UxyUxU y,y,(Q,-x Q(1P1,P 0P,(P,-T-0 QPUPUTyUxU uxUxU tUxUyx1u0 P,U0y] ,(Q,,L-,P) ,Q(Q(-L,-p ,0u0utUxPy yTyuUx1t0Q 0-Uy] )P-(U,)P(P L,P0-T, UPTQx1xuxy xyUxyt Ut1(1P1U0U (Q(,T-, --L-,Q(-PL UPTQTUtUyT TyUtUxUU,U ,P(U,1U (-,-,P,L,P ,L,(,L-T,) x-t0u0xyUy xyTuyTu0Q( Q,M,- (-,-(-,L-P 0,u0t)TUPU xuUxyUyT UxyyTQTQ0Q Q(P),L- P(-P(-P1,Q 0t-LUPUxyU TyUxy tUxQTUQ0Q( ,1Q,L M,P), P(-T-L1t,1 x1t1xQ1yUy xUyTy yTy-T-(Q P),Q( (,,L1,M,t1 t1xyTy UyxyQxyy TQ0Q, Q(Q0Q 0P-x-U,y-x UyUyU TyQxUQT-UQ p196-2 ftsTitleOverride Food Processing (page 2) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Irradiation of food stuffs. A technician maneuvers a cylindrical casket of fruit above an accelerator pool, submerged in which is a 2 000 000 electron-volt accelerator, a source of the X-rays that are used to preserve foodstuffs. The irradiation operation is carried out under water to protect the technician from exposure to radiation. Food Processing (2 of 3) Canning As the demand for perishable foods grew, methods were sought to allow safe long-distance transportation and preservation. Commercial 'canning' - originally in sealed glass postdates from the time of the Napoleonic Wars in the early 19th century. The spread of canning technology went hand in hand with the advance of the railways, the 1860s and 1870s being the time when American corned beef spread throughout the world. Since then, canning has been revolutionized by advances in controlled heating, the use of additives to improve flavor and appearance, and the design and manufacture of the cans themselves - plastic coatings, shaped aluminum and sophisticated sealing. Freezing Although freezing was being used as a food preservation technique by the end of the 19th century, the freezing itself took a day or more and food tended to be damaged in the process. The modern frozen-food industry, using quick-freezing methods that take only a few minutes or a few hours, started in the 1930s. Today, with the deep-freeze a common item of household equipment in developed countries, frozen foods are an extremely popular convenience food. Additives are rarely needed, most of the nutritional value of food is maintained, and a wide variety of precooked frozen foods is available. Food presentation Many of the older food-processing techniques alter the flavor, appearance or texture of foodstuffs. Even freezing - despite its advantages - can alter texture and taste on thawing, because of the disruptive effect of ice crystals. The 20th century has seen an increasing emphasis on freshness, visual appeal and freedom from additives. The retailer's aim is to make food items look and taste as if they have just been harvested or freshly prepared. Chilling, vacuum-packing, controlled-atmosphere packing and irradiation are all possible ways of achieving this aim. Of these, irradiation - the controlled use of gamma or beta rays - is the most effective anti-microbial technique and preserver of quality, but it is not widely used in Europe and America because of fears about its safety. Chilling is particularly useful for foods that are sold and eaten within a few days of preparation. Chilling approximates to house hold-refrigerator conditions, and slows down spoilage considerably. However, the bacterium Listeria, which can cause food poisoning, can persist at chill-temperature. Controlled-atmosphere packing involves the use of unreactive gases such as nitrogen, which slow down the rate of spoilage. Biotechnology in food processing The possibility of altering the genes of a food source to change the characteristics of a food product is now real. Raw materials may be manipulated to give new effects, or effects currently achieved only by using additives. Currently under research are animals with a better lean-to-fat ratio, and soybean proteins with better 'foaming' properties to help make certain desserts more attractive to eat. New sweeteners such as aspartame and thaumatin are produced using genetic-engineering techniques or mass-culture of plant cells. Tomatoes have been created that contain genes preventing the softening of skin associated with ripening, thus prolonging shelf life. Diagnostic tests, based on monoclonal antibodies and gene-probes, have been developed to detect food-poisoning bacteria in raw and processed foods, and toxins in fish that come from the algae they eat. Other technologies Spectacular growth has been made in extruded food, where ground materials such as cereal flours, grains, potatoes, flavors and spices are mixed with water or other fluids, and forced out of nozzles under pressure and cooked. This is the technique used for centuries by the Chinese and then the Italians for noodles and pasta. The snack - food and sweet - biscuit industries are now using many innovations in extrusion. The need to detect foreign bodies such as fish bones and fruit stones has led to the use of sophisticated lasers or computerized density-sensors in food-processing lines. An electronic 'potato' developed in England accompanies real potatoes down the processing line to detect where bruising and damage occur. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING * FISHING * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER Outline Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture U-0UUx TUx-T0Q y1-UyUT U1P11-, TyYUTU1U1y 1y1UT-0UTP (-1-9 11y1U00 1x1T1, T,xTy ]:]:y T1U0U0 1U01x y0U]]y] 1--)Q 1TUx9 T,UUyx] Xy]yT U-9U] UyTUy,T,U, yTQTP( y1TPTt,LTy yTyTP Uy1x] ,x,xT :0U9\ (TUTU ]-]9U L,,tU Q0,,U, _:>2V y0y11P QUyYy ,T,x, -1yTU, t0tL,Q 0]10P 1\Q11 P1P,-( x(U0Q t,L,(P UT9UY 9Y]0- t$$P$, x0U0U U,0U,0- 1\U8U01U0 T1T0-0 T10y9 T1U11P 101U0 -0U0U T,UT1x ]x10T \U0-0 T1,1T 9y0y] 00100 ]Yy]] x9]U]y8 -10y1 T,U0T U1T]T 0U0U010 T19UTU]T9x 9T1TUU ,1T0T ]U]]U]U]YT ]\U]U9 Y]UT] T0P1T,0 ]T]]U U]y0y 0U1T]]y y0U\1y1 1]1UT19 ]UU1011x 1UTUT1 ]xxUTUT1 0TUTyTU UT0U0P 1T10U0 ]19]Ut 1y0UTQTTUP P1T-1 0y109 00100U1U 10x9x1\10 UtUx,t0 ]U1T9 xUxuxUxyTU y00U0U 011T] TtUxyT 1x1]0 UxUy0 U]]U]U\U]T ]TyT]U1 91U9y8]0y uTyTyx \U9x9y ,QTyyT 10y0] 9y0]0 010]0U8U1U a]xUU0 ]]UTU]-09T 9T10yU yTyYP ,U0U0 TU011U8U y9UY9]0 ]U9U1T1,] 010U0 tUtyx ]]U]0 T9U0]11]1T 110U1 T10y1x1 U]T10 0U1T1U0 10]U] ]UUTU 8U1]T10 T1]\9y -9091U y1U011T1]1 U0]T]0y 1U91U1U9U0 T101U 01\18U U]]U] ]Y]\U] 1y1U11x 1U8U909]19 y0U1010 01]y9 9U1U0U0 UU]y1 1U\T10]1 ]U0]18 x]P,x 1U0U0 0U101U1TU x]Ux11 \11]T U0U1UT11 10UTU] 9yYU]T 9U]109 \]U]] xTP0x ]]Uy9 x1011 -T0U, U00yU ]\]]UT10]1 0T1U0 ]]U]] ]0U9Y1]] 1]11]1 ]UT]1T1\ y9T]]U]TU 109Y1\90 U]19y 1U1U1T1U01 T9U]y 9U1]TU1T1 81x911U81U U,yYx 9yT^T]9 1\11T9T1U0 Y]x1]]T 9U]]U0 1019y11 110U0 1\1U1T x9U0]1 ]\]\]1 T]Y9y8UT] UU0118U\ 1UU]U T9y9x 1]U011 T1y1x 90U1x1T010 1y1U0 1\1]TU 1]9U9y819y U010U 1U]]U \1U]TU]U1] 01U9U y8]-11\10 09y109y1U 1]0]x1 19118 1U0]1T1 1]1091U1 1U011 1T11\1\U1 9T0U1 U0U00U U101U ]901U pTy]L1 T1011 U0U1y U0191 11-T1 ]U0]T9 UT9T11T1 PTTUx0 U1]YU 0U010U0 91y9y1 1U09x 11T1U1 UT1T9 ]8]T1 118-8 ]T10U091 ]U1x11]0 1T10U 1\10U9T1T 11U10- ]\]U0 T-0U1 90-11T T110U1 ]y9y1 U10-1 9UT1\1]: 19y]1 ]T9y09T 0U11]0]1 ]Y]\1 1181]0 ]Y]0]19 1T]]9]1 9y9y9 U1]Y9yT1 U]UU]] T1T91 ]]U]] 9]1x9y U01U9 1]1Y1 U]U0U1 199U8U]] ]U9U0 y1]81 Y91011 UY9x9 U]]y9 10]1] 1]91]Yy]y9 ]]U90 1]]19y UU]y9 ]U]T11 0]U9y9 9y1U9 9U9]Y1 UU]U191]1 U]U]U10 T1\11U11] ]U]U1 U]9U1 1]U]] 191]T \1U0]181U0 ]T]9U] 0U919]Y y9y9U 1U\]U 19y]1 9U]]U1 101U1 y0U1U 9y9y]]1 U-0-0T 9T1]]U8y] 91T9] 9x91y0 ]U1]1U]U1 ]T1U9 y0]19 11]01yY9 x190U1 Ux9]1 9UT1]118U U1]1- 911y9U0 11T1U0U 11x9U 11U0U 0U]]1x1U 1191U8U9Y1 ]-11T91U 9y9]U1 19T10U 1U0U1 19T19U191 1U11T11] 1]1U9\1]1U p196-3 ftsTitleOverride Food Processing (page 3) ftsTitle ftsKeywords Monosodium glutamate is a white crystalline powder, seen here in a false-color scanning electron micrograph. It is prepared from wheat gluten and other proteins. Food Processing (3 of 3) FOOD ADDITIVES There is a long tradition of using additives to improve both the appearance and the taste of food products. Orange-colored plant dyes are used to make cheeses look richly flavored, berry juice to darken thin wines, and chalk to whiten coarse-floured bread. Salt, spices, and natural sources of monosodium glutamate are used to give foods a meaty or savory flavor. Vinegar, salt and sugar all act as preservatives. In foods such as pickles, cured meats and jams, they remove free water and inhibit the growth of spoilage yeasts and various bacteria associated with food poisoning. During the 19th century, as the techniques of chemical synthesis developed, the creation of new flavors and colors became a focus for many researchers. Sometimes their aim was to replace scarce or old-fashioned ingredients such as cochineal, a red dye made from squashed cactus-bugs; sometimes entirely new compounds were made, such as saccharin, synthesized in the USA in 1879 as a non-fattening replacement for sugar. This rapid proliferation of products often led to the use of materials that were untested for safety. Many additives have since been banned as possible health hazards. Acceptable and established additives are now classified as 'Generally Regarded as Safe' (GRAS); new ones must undergo years of testing to ensure freedom from harmful effects. In the USA, the Food and Drug Administration has stringently regulated food additives since 1960. The European Community also assesses additives and grants permitted ones E numbers, which must appear on food labels. Many of these 'E-number' additives are natural (or identical to natural) substances, such as Vitamin C (ascorbic acid, an anti-oxidant and acidulant). Others are artificial, such as tartrazine, a yellow-orange dye currently implicated in food allergies. Modern additives perform a wide range of functions. They include agents to control mold, anti-oxidants to preserve fats and oils from rancidity, gelling agents to give products a pleasant texture, and emulsifiers to stabilize mixtures of ingredients. * THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE * ARABLE FARMING * LIVESTOCK FARMING * FISHING * FOOD, DIET AND DIGESTION * POPULATION AND HUNGER Encyclopedia WTIEncyclopedia buttonClick buttonClick WTIEncyclopedia Outline Section WTIgoToSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSection SubSection $WTIgoToSubSection buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSubSection Spread L`WTIgoToSpread buttonClick buttonClick WTIgoToSpread Picture \980] \89T11 T11098T 11T8]1 \\]0\8 ]0\00T 11911 T1-81-] 011]18 8]T\0] T0]00 9T1\\ 081\9x] 9T9T8 T89Ta 988T9 90]]\8\] \]\U81 T98101T8 `00\\T0 ]\\9` 9T88T 9x9\\]\ 8\18T Y00]00 0\9T8] ]00]\ 1\09\0 988]0 8]8\9\\ ]\]8T \\]\] 0T89T08U\ T0]\]9 9T0]0 T80]8 9\]8\8]\9 0\8U8]\ 0aT]\ \]8]8 `]\]\ T848\ 8T90]8]0 \]\]0\ \]881 08180 \\0T9T8T9 9\\]\\]\]\ ]8\\] \]\]8 T0\T8 U8\9\ U8\09 0\U8T 1\]Ta ]0T09T 90]0\9 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